Understand & Improve Memory Using Science-Based Tools | Huberman Lab Essentials

Welcome to Huberman Lab Essentials, Welcome to Huberman Lab Essentials, where we revisit past episodes for the where we revisit past episodes for the where we revisit past episodes for the most potent and actionable science-based most potent and actionable science-based most potent and actionable science-based tools for mental health, physical tools for mental health, physical tools for mental health, physical health, and performance. health, and performance. health, and performance. I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor of neurobiology and opthalmology at of neurobiology and opthalmology at of neurobiology and opthalmology at Stanford School of Medicine. Today we Stanford School of Medicine. Today we Stanford School of Medicine. Today we are discussing memory. In particular, are discussing memory. In particular, are discussing memory. In particular, how to improve your memory. We are how to improve your memory. We are how to improve your memory. We are constantly being bombarded with physical constantly being bombarded with physical constantly being bombarded with physical stimula, patterns of touch on our skin, stimula, patterns of touch on our skin, stimula, patterns of touch on our skin, light to our eyes, light to our skin for light to our eyes, light to our skin for light to our eyes, light to our skin for that matter, smells, tastes, and sound that matter, smells, tastes, and sound that matter, smells, tastes, and sound waves. Each one of and all of those waves. Each one of and all of those waves. Each one of and all of those sensory stimula are converted into sensory stimula are converted into sensory stimula are converted into electricity and chemical signals by your electricity and chemical signals by your electricity and chemical signals by your so-called nervous system, your brain, so-called nervous system, your brain, so-called nervous system, your brain, your spinal cord, and all their your spinal cord, and all their your spinal cord, and all their connections with the organs of the body connections with the organs of the body connections with the organs of the body and all the connections of your organs and all the connections of your organs and all the connections of your organs of the body back to your brain and of the body back to your brain and of the body back to your brain and spinal cord. For instance, if you can spinal cord. For instance, if you can spinal cord. For instance, if you can hear me speaking right now, you are hear me speaking right now, you are hear me speaking right now, you are perceiving my voice, but you are also perceiving my voice, but you are also perceiving my voice, but you are also most likely neglecting the feeling of most likely neglecting the feeling of most likely neglecting the feeling of the contact of your skin with whichever the contact of your skin with whichever the contact of your skin with whichever surface you happen to be sitting or surface you happen to be sitting or surface you happen to be sitting or standing on. It is only by perceiving a standing on. It is only by perceiving a standing on. It is only by perceiving a subset, a small fraction of the sensory subset, a small fraction of the sensory subset, a small fraction of the sensory events in our environment that we can events in our environment that we can events in our environment that we can make sense of the world around us. make sense of the world around us. make sense of the world around us. Otherwise, we would just be overwhelmed Otherwise, we would just be overwhelmed Otherwise, we would just be overwhelmed with all the things that are happening with all the things that are happening with all the things that are happening in any one given moment. Now, memory is in any one given moment. Now, memory is in any one given moment. Now, memory is simply a bias in which perceptions will simply a bias in which perceptions will simply a bias in which perceptions will be replayed again in the future. Now, be replayed again in the future. Now, be replayed again in the future. Now, this might seem immensely simple, but it this might seem immensely simple, but it this might seem immensely simple, but it raises this really interesting question raises this really interesting question raises this really interesting question which we talked about before, which is which we talked about before, which is which we talked about before, which is why do we remember certain things and why do we remember certain things and why do we remember certain things and not others? Because according to what not others? Because according to what not others? Because according to what I've just said, as you go through life, I've just said, as you go through life, I've just said, as you go through life, you're experiencing things all the time. you're experiencing things all the time. you're experiencing things all the time. You're constantly being bombarded with You're constantly being bombarded with You're constantly being bombarded with sensory stimula. Some of those sensory sensory stimula. Some of those sensory sensory stimula. Some of those sensory stimula you perceive and only some of stimula you perceive and only some of stimula you perceive and only some of those perceptions get stamped down as those perceptions get stamped down as those perceptions get stamped down as memories. Today I'm going to teach you memories. Today I'm going to teach you memories. Today I'm going to teach you how certain things get stamped down as how certain things get stamped down as how certain things get stamped down as memories. And I'm going to teach you how memories. And I'm going to teach you how memories. And I'm going to teach you how to leverage that process in order to to leverage that process in order to to leverage that process in order to remember the information that you want remember the information that you want remember the information that you want far better. Each individual thing that far better. Each individual thing that far better. Each individual thing that we remember or that we want to remember we remember or that we want to remember we remember or that we want to remember is linked to something by either a is linked to something by either a is linked to something by either a close, a medium or a very distant close, a medium or a very distant close, a medium or a very distant association. This turns out to be association. This turns out to be association. This turns out to be immensely important. I know many of you immensely important. I know many of you immensely important. I know many of you will read or will encounter programs will read or will encounter programs will read or will encounter programs that are designed to help you enhance that are designed to help you enhance that are designed to help you enhance your memory. You know, you have these uh your memory. You know, you have these uh your memory. You know, you have these uh phenoms that can remember 50 names in a phenoms that can remember 50 names in a phenoms that can remember 50 names in a in a room full of people or they can in a room full of people or they can in a room full of people or they can remember a bunch of names of novel remember a bunch of names of novel remember a bunch of names of novel objects or maybe even in different objects or maybe even in different objects or maybe even in different languages. And often times that's done languages. And often times that's done languages. And often times that's done by association. So people will come up by association. So people will come up by association. So people will come up with little mental tricks to, you know, with little mental tricks to, you know, with little mental tricks to, you know, either link the sound of a word or the either link the sound of a word or the either link the sound of a word or the meaning of a word in some way that's meaning of a word in some way that's meaning of a word in some way that's meaningful for them and will enhance meaningful for them and will enhance meaningful for them and will enhance their memory. that can be done and is their memory. that can be done and is their memory. that can be done and is impressive when we see it. And for those impressive when we see it. And for those impressive when we see it. And for those of you who can do that, congratulations. of you who can do that, congratulations. of you who can do that, congratulations. Most of us can't do that or at least it Most of us can't do that or at least it Most of us can't do that or at least it requires a lot of effort and training. requires a lot of effort and training. requires a lot of effort and training. However, there are things that we can do However, there are things that we can do However, there are things that we can do that leverage the natural biology of our that leverage the natural biology of our that leverage the natural biology of our nervous system to enhance learning and nervous system to enhance learning and nervous system to enhance learning and memory of particular perceptions and memory of particular perceptions and memory of particular perceptions and particular information. So, let's talk particular information. So, let's talk particular information. So, let's talk about tools for enhancing memory. Now, about tools for enhancing memory. Now, about tools for enhancing memory. Now, there's one tool that is absolutely there's one tool that is absolutely there's one tool that is absolutely clear works and that's repetition. clear works and that's repetition. clear works and that's repetition. The more often that you perform The more often that you perform The more often that you perform something or that you recite something, something or that you recite something, something or that you recite something, the more likely you are to remember it the more likely you are to remember it the more likely you are to remember it in the future. And while that might seem in the future. And while that might seem in the future. And while that might seem obvious, it's worth thinking about obvious, it's worth thinking about obvious, it's worth thinking about what's happening when you repeat what's happening when you repeat what's happening when you repeat something. But when I say what's something. But when I say what's something. But when I say what's happening, I mean at the neural level, happening, I mean at the neural level, happening, I mean at the neural level, what's happening is that you're what's happening is that you're what's happening is that you're encouraging the firing of particular encouraging the firing of particular encouraging the firing of particular chains of neurons that reside in a chains of neurons that reside in a chains of neurons that reside in a particular circuit. Right? So a particular circuit. Right? So a particular circuit. Right? So a particular sequence of neurons playing particular sequence of neurons playing particular sequence of neurons playing neuron A, B, C, D played in that neuron A, B, C, D played in that neuron A, B, C, D played in that particular sequence over and over and particular sequence over and over and particular sequence over and over and over again. And with more repetitions, over again. And with more repetitions, over again. And with more repetitions, you get more strengthening of those you get more strengthening of those you get more strengthening of those nerve connections. The problem for most nerve connections. The problem for most nerve connections. The problem for most people is that they either don't have people is that they either don't have people is that they either don't have the patience, they don't have the time, the patience, they don't have the time, the patience, they don't have the time, and sometimes they literally don't have and sometimes they literally don't have and sometimes they literally don't have the time because they've got a deadline the time because they've got a deadline the time because they've got a deadline on something that they're trying to on something that they're trying to on something that they're trying to remember and learn, or they simply would remember and learn, or they simply would remember and learn, or they simply would like to be able to remember things like to be able to remember things like to be able to remember things better in general, remember them more better in general, remember them more better in general, remember them more quickly. this process of accelerating quickly. this process of accelerating quickly. this process of accelerating repetition-based learning so that your repetition-based learning so that your repetition-based learning so that your learning curve doesn't go from having to learning curve doesn't go from having to learning curve doesn't go from having to perform something a thousand times and perform something a thousand times and perform something a thousand times and then gradually over time it's 1,00 750 then gradually over time it's 1,00 750 then gradually over time it's 1,00 750 times a day 500 times a day 300 times a times a day 500 times a day 300 times a times a day 500 times a day 300 times a day and down to no repetitions right you day and down to no repetitions right you day and down to no repetitions right you can just perform that thing the first can just perform that thing the first can just perform that thing the first time and every time well there is a way time and every time well there is a way time and every time well there is a way to shift that curve so that you can to shift that curve so that you can to shift that curve so that you can essentially establish stronger essentially establish stronger essentially establish stronger connections between the neurons that are connections between the neurons that are connections between the neurons that are involved in generating that memory involved in generating that memory involved in generating that memory memory or behavior more quickly. How do memory or behavior more quickly. How do memory or behavior more quickly. How do you do that? Well, in order to answer you do that? Well, in order to answer you do that? Well, in order to answer that, we have to look at the beautiful that, we have to look at the beautiful that, we have to look at the beautiful work of James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill. work of James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill. work of James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill. James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill did a James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill did a James McGaw and Larry Kah Hill did a number of experiments over several number of experiments over several number of experiments over several decades really that really established decades really that really established decades really that really established what's required to get better at what's required to get better at what's required to get better at remembering things and to do so very remembering things and to do so very remembering things and to do so very quickly. They evaluated the capacity for quickly. They evaluated the capacity for quickly. They evaluated the capacity for stress and for particular neurochemicals stress and for particular neurochemicals stress and for particular neurochemicals associated with stress to improve our associated with stress to improve our associated with stress to improve our ability to learn information not just ability to learn information not just ability to learn information not just information that is emotional but information that is emotional but information that is emotional but information of all kinds. So I'm going information of all kinds. So I'm going information of all kinds. So I'm going to describe some experiments done in to describe some experiments done in to describe some experiments done in animal models just very briefly and then animal models just very briefly and then animal models just very briefly and then experiments done on human subjects. If experiments done on human subjects. If experiments done on human subjects. If you take a rat or a mouse and put it in you take a rat or a mouse and put it in you take a rat or a mouse and put it in an arena where at one location the an arena where at one location the an arena where at one location the animal receives an electrical shock and animal receives an electrical shock and animal receives an electrical shock and then you come back the next day, you then you come back the next day, you then you come back the next day, you remove the shock evoking device and you remove the shock evoking device and you remove the shock evoking device and you let the animal move around that arena, let the animal move around that arena, let the animal move around that arena, that animal will quite understandably that animal will quite understandably that animal will quite understandably avoid the location where it was shocked. avoid the location where it was shocked. avoid the location where it was shocked. So-called conditioned place aversion. So-called conditioned place aversion. So-called conditioned place aversion. That effect of avoiding that particular That effect of avoiding that particular That effect of avoiding that particular location occurs in one trial. That's a location occurs in one trial. That's a location occurs in one trial. That's a good example of one trial learning. So good example of one trial learning. So good example of one trial learning. So somehow the animal knows that it was somehow the animal knows that it was somehow the animal knows that it was shocked at that location. It remembers shocked at that location. It remembers shocked at that location. It remembers that. It is a hippocample dependent that. It is a hippocample dependent that. It is a hippocample dependent learning. They remember it after the learning. They remember it after the learning. They remember it after the first time and every time unless first time and every time unless first time and every time unless you are to block the release of certain you are to block the release of certain you are to block the release of certain chemicals in the brain and body and the chemicals in the brain and body and the chemicals in the brain and body and the chemicals I'm referring to are chemicals I'm referring to are chemicals I'm referring to are epinephrine, adrenaline, and to some epinephrine, adrenaline, and to some epinephrine, adrenaline, and to some extent cortisol. Now we know that the extent cortisol. Now we know that the extent cortisol. Now we know that the effect of getting one trial learning effect of getting one trial learning effect of getting one trial learning somehow involves epinephrine at least in somehow involves epinephrine at least in somehow involves epinephrine at least in this particular experimental scenario this particular experimental scenario this particular experimental scenario because if researchers do the exact same because if researchers do the exact same because if researchers do the exact same experiment and they have done the exact experiment and they have done the exact experiment and they have done the exact same experiment but they introduce a same experiment but they introduce a same experiment but they introduce a pharmacological blocker of epinephrine pharmacological blocker of epinephrine pharmacological blocker of epinephrine so that epinephrine is released in so that epinephrine is released in so that epinephrine is released in response to the shock but it cannot response to the shock but it cannot response to the shock but it cannot actually bind to its receptors and have actually bind to its receptors and have actually bind to its receptors and have all of its biological effects. Well, all of its biological effects. Well, all of its biological effects. Well, then the animal is perfectly happy to then the animal is perfectly happy to then the animal is perfectly happy to tread back into the area where it tread back into the area where it tread back into the area where it received the shock. It's almost as if it received the shock. It's almost as if it received the shock. It's almost as if it didn't know or we have to assume it didn't know or we have to assume it didn't know or we have to assume it didn't remember that it received a shock didn't remember that it received a shock didn't remember that it received a shock at that location. So, it all seems at that location. So, it all seems at that location. So, it all seems pretty obvious when you hear it. pretty obvious when you hear it. pretty obvious when you hear it. Something bad happens in a location, Something bad happens in a location, Something bad happens in a location, you'll go back to that location. But it you'll go back to that location. But it you'll go back to that location. But it turns out that the opposite is also turns out that the opposite is also turns out that the opposite is also true. Meaning for something called true. Meaning for something called true. Meaning for something called condition place preference. You can take condition place preference. You can take condition place preference. You can take an animal, put it into an arena, feed it an animal, put it into an arena, feed it an animal, put it into an arena, feed it or reward it somehow at one location, or reward it somehow at one location, or reward it somehow at one location, take the animal out, come back the next take the animal out, come back the next take the animal out, come back the next day. No food is introduced, but it'll go day. No food is introduced, but it'll go day. No food is introduced, but it'll go back to the location where it received back to the location where it received back to the location where it received the food. Or you can do any variant of the food. Or you can do any variant of the food. Or you can do any variant of this. You can make the arena a little this. You can make the arena a little this. You can make the arena a little bit chilly and provide warmth at that bit chilly and provide warmth at that bit chilly and provide warmth at that location. Or you can take a male animal, location. Or you can take a male animal, location. Or you can take a male animal, it turns out male rats and mice will it turns out male rats and mice will it turns out male rats and mice will mate at any point. Or a female animal mate at any point. Or a female animal mate at any point. Or a female animal that's at the particular so-called that's at the particular so-called that's at the particular so-called receptive phase of her mating cycle and receptive phase of her mating cycle and receptive phase of her mating cycle and give them an opportunity to mate at a give them an opportunity to mate at a give them an opportunity to mate at a given location. They'll go back to that given location. They'll go back to that given location. They'll go back to that location and wait and wait. This is location and wait and wait. This is location and wait and wait. This is perhaps why people go back to the same perhaps why people go back to the same perhaps why people go back to the same bar or the bar seat at the bar or the bar or the bar seat at the bar or the bar or the bar seat at the bar or the same restaurant and wait for because of same restaurant and wait for because of same restaurant and wait for because of the one time they, you know, things the one time they, you know, things the one time they, you know, things worked out for them. What whatever the worked out for them. What whatever the worked out for them. What whatever the context was. Condition place preference context was. Condition place preference context was. Condition place preference as with condition place avoidance as with condition place avoidance as with condition place avoidance depends on the release of adrenaline. depends on the release of adrenaline. depends on the release of adrenaline. Right? It's not just about stress. It's Right? It's not just about stress. It's Right? It's not just about stress. It's about a heightened emotional state in about a heightened emotional state in about a heightened emotional state in the brain and body. Okay, this is really the brain and body. Okay, this is really the brain and body. Okay, this is really important. It's not just about stress. important. It's not just about stress. important. It's not just about stress. You can get one trial learning for You can get one trial learning for You can get one trial learning for positive events condition place positive events condition place positive events condition place preference and you can get one trial preference and you can get one trial preference and you can get one trial learning for negative events. This turns learning for negative events. This turns learning for negative events. This turns out all to be true for humans as well. out all to be true for humans as well. out all to be true for humans as well. We know that because McGon Cahill did We know that because McGon Cahill did We know that because McGon Cahill did experiments where they gave people a experiments where they gave people a experiments where they gave people a boring paragraph to read and only a boring paragraph to read and only a boring paragraph to read and only a boring paragraph to read. But one group boring paragraph to read. But one group boring paragraph to read. But one group of subjects was asked to read the of subjects was asked to read the of subjects was asked to read the paragraph and then to place their arm paragraph and then to place their arm paragraph and then to place their arm into very very cold water. In fact, it into very very cold water. In fact, it into very very cold water. In fact, it was ice water. We know that placing was ice water. We know that placing was ice water. We know that placing one's arm into ice water, especially if one's arm into ice water, especially if one's arm into ice water, especially if it's up to the shoulder or near to it, it's up to the shoulder or near to it, it's up to the shoulder or near to it, evokes the release of adrenaline in the evokes the release of adrenaline in the evokes the release of adrenaline in the body. It's not an enormous release, but body. It's not an enormous release, but body. It's not an enormous release, but it's a significant increase. And yes, it's a significant increase. And yes, it's a significant increase. And yes, they measured adrenaline release. In they measured adrenaline release. In they measured adrenaline release. In some cases, they also measured for some cases, they also measured for some cases, they also measured for things like cortisol, etc. And what they things like cortisol, etc. And what they things like cortisol, etc. And what they found is that if one evokes the release found is that if one evokes the release found is that if one evokes the release of adrenaline through this arm into ice of adrenaline through this arm into ice of adrenaline through this arm into ice water approach, the information that water approach, the information that water approach, the information that they read previously, just a few minutes they read previously, just a few minutes they read previously, just a few minutes before, was remembered. It was retained before, was remembered. It was retained before, was remembered. It was retained as well as emotionally intense as well as emotionally intense as well as emotionally intense information. But keep in mind the information. But keep in mind the information. But keep in mind the information that they read was not information that they read was not information that they read was not interesting at all or at least it wasn't interesting at all or at least it wasn't interesting at all or at least it wasn't emotionally laden. emotionally laden. emotionally laden. This had to be the effect of adrenaline This had to be the effect of adrenaline This had to be the effect of adrenaline released into the brain and body because released into the brain and body because released into the brain and body because if they blocked the release or the if they blocked the release or the if they blocked the release or the function of adrenaline in the brain and function of adrenaline in the brain and function of adrenaline in the brain and or body, they could block this effect. or body, they could block this effect. or body, they could block this effect. This is absolutely important in terms of This is absolutely important in terms of This is absolutely important in terms of thinking about tools to improve your thinking about tools to improve your thinking about tools to improve your memory. It is the presence of high memory. It is the presence of high memory. It is the presence of high adrenaline, high amounts of adrenaline, high amounts of adrenaline, high amounts of norepinephrine and epinephrine that norepinephrine and epinephrine that norepinephrine and epinephrine that allows a memory to be stamped down allows a memory to be stamped down allows a memory to be stamped down quickly and far and away different than quickly and far and away different than quickly and far and away different than the idea that we remember things because the idea that we remember things because the idea that we remember things because they're important to us or because they they're important to us or because they they're important to us or because they evoke emotion. That's true. But the real evoke emotion. That's true. But the real evoke emotion. That's true. But the real reason, the neurochemical reason, the reason, the neurochemical reason, the reason, the neurochemical reason, the mechanism behind all that is mechanism behind all that is mechanism behind all that is neurochemicals have the ability to neurochemicals have the ability to neurochemicals have the ability to strengthen neural connections by making strengthen neural connections by making strengthen neural connections by making them active just once. There's something them active just once. There's something them active just once. There's something truly magic about that neurochemical truly magic about that neurochemical truly magic about that neurochemical cocktail that removes the need for cocktail that removes the need for cocktail that removes the need for repetition. Okay. So, let's apply this repetition. Okay. So, let's apply this repetition. Okay. So, let's apply this knowledge. Let's establish a knowledge. Let's establish a knowledge. Let's establish a scientifically grounded set of tools. scientifically grounded set of tools. scientifically grounded set of tools. meaning tools that take into account the meaning tools that take into account the meaning tools that take into account the identity of the neurochemicals that are identity of the neurochemicals that are identity of the neurochemicals that are important for enhancing learning and the important for enhancing learning and the important for enhancing learning and the timing of the release of those chemicals timing of the release of those chemicals timing of the release of those chemicals in order to enhance learning. Caffeine in order to enhance learning. Caffeine in order to enhance learning. Caffeine in the form of coffee or yerba mate or in the form of coffee or yerba mate or in the form of coffee or yerba mate or any other form of caffeine does create a any other form of caffeine does create a any other form of caffeine does create a sense of alertness in our brain and sense of alertness in our brain and sense of alertness in our brain and body. So my typical way of approaching body. So my typical way of approaching body. So my typical way of approaching learning and memory would be to drink learning and memory would be to drink learning and memory would be to drink some caffeine and then focus really hard some caffeine and then focus really hard some caffeine and then focus really hard on whatever it is that I'm trying to on whatever it is that I'm trying to on whatever it is that I'm trying to learn. try and eliminate distractions learn. try and eliminate distractions learn. try and eliminate distractions and then hope hope or try try to and then hope hope or try try to and then hope hope or try try to remember that information as best as I remember that information as best as I remember that information as best as I could. And frankly, I felt like it was could. And frankly, I felt like it was could. And frankly, I felt like it was working pretty well for me. And working pretty well for me. And working pretty well for me. And typically, if I leveraged other forms of typically, if I leveraged other forms of typically, if I leveraged other forms of pharmarmacology in order to enhance pharmarmacology in order to enhance pharmarmacology in order to enhance learning and memory, things like alpha learning and memory, things like alpha learning and memory, things like alpha GPC or phosphotidal serereine, I would GPC or phosphotidal serereine, I would GPC or phosphotidal serereine, I would do that by taking those things before I do that by taking those things before I do that by taking those things before I sat down to learn a particular set of sat down to learn a particular set of sat down to learn a particular set of information or before I went off to information or before I went off to information or before I went off to learn a particular physical skill. For learn a particular physical skill. For learn a particular physical skill. For those of you out there listening to those of you out there listening to those of you out there listening to this, you're probably thinking, well, this, you're probably thinking, well, this, you're probably thinking, well, okay, the results of McGawan Kill okay, the results of McGawan Kill okay, the results of McGawan Kill pointed to the fact that having pointed to the fact that having pointed to the fact that having adrenaline released after adrenaline released after adrenaline released after learning something, enhanced learning of learning something, enhanced learning of learning something, enhanced learning of that thing. But a lot of these things that thing. But a lot of these things that thing. But a lot of these things like caffeine or alpha GPC can increase like caffeine or alpha GPC can increase like caffeine or alpha GPC can increase epinephrine and adrenaline or dopamine epinephrine and adrenaline or dopamine epinephrine and adrenaline or dopamine or other molecules in the brain and body or other molecules in the brain and body or other molecules in the brain and body that can enhance memory for a long that can enhance memory for a long that can enhance memory for a long period of time. So it makes sense to period of time. So it makes sense to period of time. So it makes sense to take it first or even during learning take it first or even during learning take it first or even during learning and then allow that increase to occur and then allow that increase to occur and then allow that increase to occur and the increase will occur over a long and the increase will occur over a long and the increase will occur over a long period of time and will enhance learning period of time and will enhance learning period of time and will enhance learning and memory. While that is partially and memory. While that is partially and memory. While that is partially true, it is not entirely true and it true, it is not entirely true and it true, it is not entirely true and it turns out it's not optimal. And it turns turns out it's not optimal. And it turns turns out it's not optimal. And it turns out that the best time window to evoke out that the best time window to evoke out that the best time window to evoke the release of these chemicals if the the release of these chemicals if the the release of these chemicals if the goal is to enhance learning and memory goal is to enhance learning and memory goal is to enhance learning and memory of the material is either immediately of the material is either immediately of the material is either immediately after or just a few minutes, five, 10, after or just a few minutes, five, 10, after or just a few minutes, five, 10, maybe 15 minutes after you're repeating maybe 15 minutes after you're repeating maybe 15 minutes after you're repeating that information. You're trying to learn that information. You're trying to learn that information. You're trying to learn that information. Again, this could be that information. Again, this could be that information. Again, this could be cognitive information or this could be a cognitive information or this could be a cognitive information or this could be a physical skill. Now, this really spits physical skill. Now, this really spits physical skill. Now, this really spits in the face of the way that most of us in the face of the way that most of us in the face of the way that most of us approach learning and memory. Most of approach learning and memory. Most of approach learning and memory. Most of us, if we use stimulants like caffeine us, if we use stimulants like caffeine us, if we use stimulants like caffeine or alpha GPC, we're taking those before or alpha GPC, we're taking those before or alpha GPC, we're taking those before or during an attempt to learn, not or during an attempt to learn, not or during an attempt to learn, not afterwards. If you're using those afterwards. If you're using those afterwards. If you're using those compounds in order to enhance learning compounds in order to enhance learning compounds in order to enhance learning and memory, well, then I encourage you and memory, well, then I encourage you and memory, well, then I encourage you to try and take them either late in the to try and take them either late in the to try and take them either late in the learning episode or immediately after learning episode or immediately after learning episode or immediately after the learning episode. Now, given the learning episode. Now, given the learning episode. Now, given everything I've told you up until now, everything I've told you up until now, everything I've told you up until now, why would I say late in the learning why would I say late in the learning why would I say late in the learning episode or immediately after? Well, when episode or immediately after? Well, when episode or immediately after? Well, when you ingest something by drinking it or you ingest something by drinking it or you ingest something by drinking it or you take it in capsule form, there's a you take it in capsule form, there's a you take it in capsule form, there's a period of time before that gets absorbed period of time before that gets absorbed period of time before that gets absorbed into the body and different substances into the body and different substances into the body and different substances such as caffeine, alpha GPC, etc. are such as caffeine, alpha GPC, etc. are such as caffeine, alpha GPC, etc. are absorbed in from the gut and into the absorbed in from the gut and into the absorbed in from the gut and into the bloodstream and reach the brain and bloodstream and reach the brain and bloodstream and reach the brain and trigger these effects in the brain and trigger these effects in the brain and trigger these effects in the brain and body at different rates. So, it's not body at different rates. So, it's not body at different rates. So, it's not instantaneous. Some have effects within instantaneous. Some have effects within instantaneous. Some have effects within minutes, others within, you know, tens minutes, others within, you know, tens minutes, others within, you know, tens of minutes and so on. It's really going of minutes and so on. It's really going of minutes and so on. It's really going to depend on the pharmarmacology of to depend on the pharmarmacology of to depend on the pharmarmacology of those things. And it's also going to those things. And it's also going to those things. And it's also going to depend on whether or not you have food depend on whether or not you have food depend on whether or not you have food in your gut, what else you happen to in your gut, what else you happen to in your gut, what else you happen to have circulating in your bloodstream, have circulating in your bloodstream, have circulating in your bloodstream, etc. But at a very basic level, we can etc. But at a very basic level, we can etc. But at a very basic level, we can confidently say that there are not one, confidently say that there are not one, confidently say that there are not one, not dozens, but as I mentioned before, not dozens, but as I mentioned before, not dozens, but as I mentioned before, hundreds of studies in animals and in hundreds of studies in animals and in hundreds of studies in animals and in humans that point to the fact that humans that point to the fact that humans that point to the fact that triggering the increase of adrenaline triggering the increase of adrenaline triggering the increase of adrenaline late in learning or immediately after late in learning or immediately after late in learning or immediately after learning is going to be most beneficial learning is going to be most beneficial learning is going to be most beneficial if your goal is to retain that if your goal is to retain that if your goal is to retain that information for some period of time and information for some period of time and information for some period of time and to reduce the number of repetitions to reduce the number of repetitions to reduce the number of repetitions required in order to learn that required in order to learn that required in order to learn that information. Now, I want to acknowledge information. Now, I want to acknowledge information. Now, I want to acknowledge that on previous episodes of this that on previous episodes of this that on previous episodes of this podcast, I've talked a lot about things podcast, I've talked a lot about things podcast, I've talked a lot about things like non-sleep, deep rest, and naps and like non-sleep, deep rest, and naps and like non-sleep, deep rest, and naps and sleep as vital to the learning process. sleep as vital to the learning process. sleep as vital to the learning process. And I want to emphasize that none of And I want to emphasize that none of And I want to emphasize that none of that information has changed. Right? I that information has changed. Right? I that information has changed. Right? I don't look at any of that information don't look at any of that information don't look at any of that information differently as the consequence of what differently as the consequence of what differently as the consequence of what I'm talking about today. It is still I'm talking about today. It is still I'm talking about today. It is still true that the strengthening of true that the strengthening of true that the strengthening of connections in the brain, the literal connections in the brain, the literal connections in the brain, the literal neuroplasticity, the changing of the neuroplasticity, the changing of the neuroplasticity, the changing of the circuits occurs during deep sleep and circuits occurs during deep sleep and circuits occurs during deep sleep and non-sleep deep rest. And it is also true non-sleep deep rest. And it is also true non-sleep deep rest. And it is also true and I've mentioned these results earlier and I've mentioned these results earlier and I've mentioned these results earlier that two papers were published in cell that two papers were published in cell that two papers were published in cell reports cell press journal excellent reports cell press journal excellent reports cell press journal excellent journal over the last few years showing journal over the last few years showing journal over the last few years showing that brief naps of about 20 to up to 90 that brief naps of about 20 to up to 90 that brief naps of about 20 to up to 90 minutes in some period of time after an minutes in some period of time after an minutes in some period of time after an attempt to learn can enhance the rate of attempt to learn can enhance the rate of attempt to learn can enhance the rate of learning and memory that still can be learning and memory that still can be learning and memory that still can be performed but it can be performed some performed but it can be performed some performed but it can be performed some hours later even an hour later it can be hours later even an hour later it can be hours later even an hour later it can be performed 2 hours later 4 hours later. performed 2 hours later 4 hours later. performed 2 hours later 4 hours later. Remember, it's in these naps and in deep Remember, it's in these naps and in deep Remember, it's in these naps and in deep sleep that the actual reconfiguration of sleep that the actual reconfiguration of sleep that the actual reconfiguration of the neural circuits occurs. The the neural circuits occurs. The the neural circuits occurs. The strengthening of those neural circuits strengthening of those neural circuits strengthening of those neural circuits occurs. It is not the case that you need occurs. It is not the case that you need occurs. It is not the case that you need to finish a bout of learning and drop to finish a bout of learning and drop to finish a bout of learning and drop immediately into a nap or sleep. Some immediately into a nap or sleep. Some immediately into a nap or sleep. Some people might do that, but if you're people might do that, but if you're people might do that, but if you're really trying to optimize and enhance really trying to optimize and enhance really trying to optimize and enhance and improve your memory, and improve your memory, and improve your memory, the data from McGau and Kahill and many the data from McGau and Kahill and many the data from McGau and Kahill and many other laboratories that stemmed out from other laboratories that stemmed out from other laboratories that stemmed out from their initial work really point to the their initial work really point to the their initial work really point to the fact that the ideal protocol would be fact that the ideal protocol would be fact that the ideal protocol would be focus on the thing you're trying to focus on the thing you're trying to focus on the thing you're trying to learn very intensely. Still try and get learn very intensely. Still try and get learn very intensely. Still try and get excellent sleep. Again, fundamentally excellent sleep. Again, fundamentally excellent sleep. Again, fundamentally important for mental health, physical important for mental health, physical important for mental health, physical health, and performance. And we can now health, and performance. And we can now health, and performance. And we can now extend from performance to saying extend from performance to saying extend from performance to saying including learning and memory. nap if it including learning and memory. nap if it including learning and memory. nap if it doesn't interrupt your nighttime sleep. doesn't interrupt your nighttime sleep. doesn't interrupt your nighttime sleep. Naps of anywhere from 10 to 90 minutes Naps of anywhere from 10 to 90 minutes Naps of anywhere from 10 to 90 minutes or non-sleep deep rest protocols will or non-sleep deep rest protocols will or non-sleep deep rest protocols will enhance learning and memory. But we can enhance learning and memory. But we can enhance learning and memory. But we can now add to that that spiking adrenaline now add to that that spiking adrenaline now add to that that spiking adrenaline provided it can be done in a safe way is provided it can be done in a safe way is provided it can be done in a safe way is going to reduce the number of going to reduce the number of going to reduce the number of repetitions required to learn and that repetitions required to learn and that repetitions required to learn and that should be done at the very tail end or should be done at the very tail end or should be done at the very tail end or immediately after a learning bout which immediately after a learning bout which immediately after a learning bout which is compatible with all the other is compatible with all the other is compatible with all the other protocols that I mentioned. And the protocols that I mentioned. And the protocols that I mentioned. And the reason I'm revisiting the stuff about reason I'm revisiting the stuff about reason I'm revisiting the stuff about sleep and non-sleep deep rest is I think sleep and non-sleep deep rest is I think sleep and non-sleep deep rest is I think that some people got the impression that that some people got the impression that that some people got the impression that they need to do that immediately after they need to do that immediately after they need to do that immediately after learning. And today I'm saying to the learning. And today I'm saying to the learning. And today I'm saying to the contrary, immediately after learning, contrary, immediately after learning, contrary, immediately after learning, you need to go into a heightened state you need to go into a heightened state you need to go into a heightened state of emotionality and alertness. Now, it's of emotionality and alertness. Now, it's of emotionality and alertness. Now, it's vitally important to point out that you vitally important to point out that you vitally important to point out that you do not need pharmarmacology. You don't do not need pharmarmacology. You don't do not need pharmarmacology. You don't need caffeine. You don't need alpha GPC. need caffeine. You don't need alpha GPC. need caffeine. You don't need alpha GPC. You don't need any pharmacologic You don't need any pharmacologic You don't need any pharmacologic substance to spike adrenaline unless substance to spike adrenaline unless substance to spike adrenaline unless that's something that you already are that's something that you already are that's something that you already are doing or that you can do safely or that doing or that you can do safely or that doing or that you can do safely or that you know that you can do safely. So if you know that you can do safely. So if you know that you can do safely. So if you're somebody who's not used to you're somebody who's not used to you're somebody who's not used to drinking caffeine and you suddenly drink drinking caffeine and you suddenly drink drinking caffeine and you suddenly drink four espresso after trying to learn four espresso after trying to learn four espresso after trying to learn something, you are going to have a something, you are going to have a something, you are going to have a severe increase in alertness and severe increase in alertness and severe increase in alertness and probably even anxiety. If you're panic probably even anxiety. If you're panic probably even anxiety. If you're panic attack prone, please don't start taking attack prone, please don't start taking attack prone, please don't start taking stimulants in order to learn things stimulants in order to learn things stimulants in order to learn things better. You could take a cold shower. better. You could take a cold shower. better. You could take a cold shower. You could do an ice bath or get into a You could do an ice bath or get into a You could do an ice bath or get into a cold circulating bath in order to evoke cold circulating bath in order to evoke cold circulating bath in order to evoke epinephrine and dopamine release. You epinephrine and dopamine release. You epinephrine and dopamine release. You could go out for a hard run. You could could go out for a hard run. You could could go out for a hard run. You could do any number of things that would do any number of things that would do any number of things that would increase adrenaline in your body. Which increase adrenaline in your body. Which increase adrenaline in your body. Which things you choose is up to you. But the things you choose is up to you. But the things you choose is up to you. But the overall takeaway is that anything that overall takeaway is that anything that overall takeaway is that anything that increases adrenaline will increase increases adrenaline will increase increases adrenaline will increase learning and memory and will reduce the learning and memory and will reduce the learning and memory and will reduce the number of repetitions required to learn number of repetitions required to learn number of repetitions required to learn something. And as a cautionary note, something. And as a cautionary note, something. And as a cautionary note, don't think that you can push this don't think that you can push this don't think that you can push this entire system to the extreme over and entire system to the extreme over and entire system to the extreme over and over again or chronically as we say and over again or chronically as we say and over again or chronically as we say and get away with it. In other words, you're get away with it. In other words, you're get away with it. In other words, you're not going to be able to take a alpha GPC not going to be able to take a alpha GPC not going to be able to take a alpha GPC and a double espresso, do your focus and a double espresso, do your focus and a double espresso, do your focus bout of work, cognitive or physical bout of work, cognitive or physical bout of work, cognitive or physical work, and then spike adrenaline again work, and then spike adrenaline again work, and then spike adrenaline again afterwards and remember that stuff even afterwards and remember that stuff even afterwards and remember that stuff even better. Right? I'm not encouraging you. better. Right? I'm not encouraging you. better. Right? I'm not encouraging you. In fact, I'm discouraging you from In fact, I'm discouraging you from In fact, I'm discouraging you from chronically increasing adrenaline both chronically increasing adrenaline both chronically increasing adrenaline both during and after a given bout of work if during and after a given bout of work if during and after a given bout of work if the goal is to learn. Why do I say that? the goal is to learn. Why do I say that? the goal is to learn. Why do I say that? Well, work from Macau and Cahill and Well, work from Macau and Cahill and Well, work from Macau and Cahill and others has shown that it's not the others has shown that it's not the others has shown that it's not the absolute amount of adrenaline that you absolute amount of adrenaline that you absolute amount of adrenaline that you release in your brain and body that release in your brain and body that release in your brain and body that matters for enhancing memory. It's the matters for enhancing memory. It's the matters for enhancing memory. It's the amount of adrenaline that you release amount of adrenaline that you release amount of adrenaline that you release relative to the amount of adrenaline relative to the amount of adrenaline relative to the amount of adrenaline that was in your system just prior in that was in your system just prior in that was in your system just prior in particular in the hour or two prior. So particular in the hour or two prior. So particular in the hour or two prior. So again, it's the delta, as we say. It's again, it's the delta, as we say. It's again, it's the delta, as we say. It's the difference. So if you're going to the difference. So if you're going to the difference. So if you're going to chronically increase adrenaline, you're chronically increase adrenaline, you're chronically increase adrenaline, you're not going to learn as well. The real key not going to learn as well. The real key not going to learn as well. The real key is to have adrenaline modestly low, is to have adrenaline modestly low, is to have adrenaline modestly low, perhaps even just as much as you need in perhaps even just as much as you need in perhaps even just as much as you need in order to be able to focus on something, order to be able to focus on something, order to be able to focus on something, pay attention to it, and then spike it pay attention to it, and then spike it pay attention to it, and then spike it afterwards. This is immensely important afterwards. This is immensely important afterwards. This is immensely important because while much of what we're talking because while much of what we're talking because while much of what we're talking about is actually a form of inducing a about is actually a form of inducing a about is actually a form of inducing a neurochemical acute stress, meaning a neurochemical acute stress, meaning a neurochemical acute stress, meaning a brief and rapid onset of stress. Well, brief and rapid onset of stress. Well, brief and rapid onset of stress. Well, chronic stress, the chronic elevation of chronic stress, the chronic elevation of chronic stress, the chronic elevation of epinephrine and cortisol is actually epinephrine and cortisol is actually epinephrine and cortisol is actually detrimental to learning. And there's an detrimental to learning. And there's an detrimental to learning. And there's an entire category of literature mainly entire category of literature mainly entire category of literature mainly from the work of the great and sadly the from the work of the great and sadly the from the work of the great and sadly the late Bruce Mchuan from the Rockefeller late Bruce Mchuan from the Rockefeller late Bruce Mchuan from the Rockefeller University and some of his scientific University and some of his scientific University and some of his scientific offspring like the great Robert offspring like the great Robert offspring like the great Robert Seapolski showing that chronic stress Seapolski showing that chronic stress Seapolski showing that chronic stress chronic elevation of epinephrine chronic elevation of epinephrine chronic elevation of epinephrine actually inhibits learning and memory actually inhibits learning and memory actually inhibits learning and memory and also can inhibit immune system and also can inhibit immune system and also can inhibit immune system function. Whereas acute sharp increases function. Whereas acute sharp increases function. Whereas acute sharp increases in adrenaline and cortisol actually can in adrenaline and cortisol actually can in adrenaline and cortisol actually can enhance learning and indeed can enhance enhance learning and indeed can enhance enhance learning and indeed can enhance the immune system. So, if you really the immune system. So, if you really the immune system. So, if you really want to leverage this information, you want to leverage this information, you want to leverage this information, you might consider getting your brain and might consider getting your brain and might consider getting your brain and body into a very calm and yet alert body into a very calm and yet alert body into a very calm and yet alert state. So, a high attentional state that state. So, a high attentional state that state. So, a high attentional state that will allow you to focus on what it is will allow you to focus on what it is will allow you to focus on what it is that you're trying to learn. We know that you're trying to learn. We know that you're trying to learn. We know focus is vital for encoding information focus is vital for encoding information focus is vital for encoding information and for triggering neuroplasticity, but and for triggering neuroplasticity, but and for triggering neuroplasticity, but remaining calm throughout that time and remaining calm throughout that time and remaining calm throughout that time and then afterwards spiking adrenaline and then afterwards spiking adrenaline and then afterwards spiking adrenaline and allowing adrenaline to have these allowing adrenaline to have these allowing adrenaline to have these incredible effects on reducing the incredible effects on reducing the incredible effects on reducing the number of repetitions required to learn. number of repetitions required to learn. number of repetitions required to learn. So if you're like me, you're learning So if you're like me, you're learning So if you're like me, you're learning about this information, this beautiful about this information, this beautiful about this information, this beautiful work of Macau and Cahill and others and work of Macau and Cahill and others and work of Macau and Cahill and others and thinking, "Wow, I should perhaps thinking, "Wow, I should perhaps thinking, "Wow, I should perhaps consider spiking my adrenaline in one consider spiking my adrenaline in one consider spiking my adrenaline in one form or another at the tail end or form or another at the tail end or form or another at the tail end or immediately following an attempt to immediately following an attempt to immediately following an attempt to learn something." And yet we are not the learn something." And yet we are not the learn something." And yet we are not the first to have this conversation. Nor first to have this conversation. Nor first to have this conversation. Nor were McGon Kahill or any other were McGon Kahill or any other were McGon Kahill or any other researchers that I've discussed today researchers that I've discussed today researchers that I've discussed today the first to start using this technique. the first to start using this technique. the first to start using this technique. In fact, there is a beautiful review In fact, there is a beautiful review In fact, there is a beautiful review that was published in the journal Neuron that was published in the journal Neuron that was published in the journal Neuron Cellpress Journal. Excellent journal Cellpress Journal. Excellent journal Cellpress Journal. Excellent journal called Mechanisms of Memory Under called Mechanisms of Memory Under called Mechanisms of Memory Under Stress. And I just want to read to you Stress. And I just want to read to you Stress. And I just want to read to you the first opening paragraph of this the first opening paragraph of this the first opening paragraph of this review. So here I'm reading and I quote, review. So here I'm reading and I quote, review. So here I'm reading and I quote, "In medieval times, communities threw "In medieval times, communities threw "In medieval times, communities threw young children in the river when they young children in the river when they young children in the river when they wanted them to remember important wanted them to remember important wanted them to remember important events. They believe that throwing a events. They believe that throwing a events. They believe that throwing a child in the water after witnessing child in the water after witnessing child in the water after witnessing historic proceedings would leave a historic proceedings would leave a historic proceedings would leave a lifelong memory for the events in the lifelong memory for the events in the lifelong memory for the events in the child." Believe it or not, this is true. child." Believe it or not, this is true. child." Believe it or not, this is true. This is a practice that somehow people This is a practice that somehow people This is a practice that somehow people arrived at. I don't know if they were arrived at. I don't know if they were arrived at. I don't know if they were aware of what adrenaline was, probably aware of what adrenaline was, probably aware of what adrenaline was, probably not. But somehow in medieval times, it not. But somehow in medieval times, it not. But somehow in medieval times, it was understood that spiking adrenaline was understood that spiking adrenaline was understood that spiking adrenaline or creating a robust emotional or creating a robust emotional or creating a robust emotional experience after an experience that one experience after an experience that one experience after an experience that one hoped a child would learn would hoped a child would learn would hoped a child would learn would encourage the child's nervous system. encourage the child's nervous system. encourage the child's nervous system. and they even know what a nervous system and they even know what a nervous system and they even know what a nervous system was, but would encourage the brain and was, but would encourage the brain and was, but would encourage the brain and body of that child to remember those body of that child to remember those body of that child to remember those particular events. particular events. particular events. Very counterintuitive if you ask me. I Very counterintuitive if you ask me. I Very counterintuitive if you ask me. I would have thought that the kid would would have thought that the kid would would have thought that the kid would remember only being thrown into the remember only being thrown into the remember only being thrown into the river. My guess is that they remember river. My guess is that they remember river. My guess is that they remember that, but that they the idea here anyway that, but that they the idea here anyway that, but that they the idea here anyway is that they also remember the things is that they also remember the things is that they also remember the things that preceded being thrown into the that preceded being thrown into the that preceded being thrown into the river. So both interesting and amusing river. So both interesting and amusing river. So both interesting and amusing and somewhat um I should say thought and somewhat um I should say thought and somewhat um I should say thought stimulating really that this is a stimulating really that this is a stimulating really that this is a practice that has been going on for many practice that has been going on for many practice that has been going on for many hundreds of years. And we are not the hundreds of years. And we are not the hundreds of years. And we are not the first to start thinking about using cold first to start thinking about using cold first to start thinking about using cold water as an adrenaline stimulus. Nor are water as an adrenaline stimulus. Nor are water as an adrenaline stimulus. Nor are we the first to start thinking about we the first to start thinking about we the first to start thinking about using cold water induced adrenaline as a using cold water induced adrenaline as a using cold water induced adrenaline as a way to enhance learning and memory. This way to enhance learning and memory. This way to enhance learning and memory. This has been happening since medieval times. has been happening since medieval times. has been happening since medieval times. So now I'd like to talk about other So now I'd like to talk about other So now I'd like to talk about other tools that you can leverage that have tools that you can leverage that have tools that you can leverage that have been shown in quality peer-reviewed been shown in quality peer-reviewed been shown in quality peer-reviewed studies to enhance learning and memory. studies to enhance learning and memory. studies to enhance learning and memory. And perhaps one of the most potent of And perhaps one of the most potent of And perhaps one of the most potent of those tools is exercise. There are those tools is exercise. There are those tools is exercise. There are numerous studies on this in both animal numerous studies on this in both animal numerous studies on this in both animal models and fortunately now also in models and fortunately now also in models and fortunately now also in humans thanks to the beautiful work of humans thanks to the beautiful work of humans thanks to the beautiful work of people like Wendy Suzuki from New York people like Wendy Suzuki from New York people like Wendy Suzuki from New York University. If you recall earlier, I University. If you recall earlier, I University. If you recall earlier, I mentioned that learning and memory mentioned that learning and memory mentioned that learning and memory almost always involves the strengthening almost always involves the strengthening almost always involves the strengthening of particular synapses and neural of particular synapses and neural of particular synapses and neural circuits in the brain. There is one circuits in the brain. There is one circuits in the brain. There is one exception, however, and we now have both exception, however, and we now have both exception, however, and we now have both animal data and some human data to animal data and some human data to animal data and some human data to support the fact that cardiovascular support the fact that cardiovascular support the fact that cardiovascular exercise seems to increase what we call exercise seems to increase what we call exercise seems to increase what we call dentate gyrus neurogenesis. Neurogenesis dentate gyrus neurogenesis. Neurogenesis dentate gyrus neurogenesis. Neurogenesis is the creation of new neurons. The is the creation of new neurons. The is the creation of new neurons. The dentate gyrus is a sub region of the dentate gyrus is a sub region of the dentate gyrus is a sub region of the hippocampus that's involved in learning hippocampus that's involved in learning hippocampus that's involved in learning and memory of particular kinds. It's and memory of particular kinds. It's and memory of particular kinds. It's very clear that getting a minimum of 180 very clear that getting a minimum of 180 very clear that getting a minimum of 180 to 200 minutes of so-called zone 2 to 200 minutes of so-called zone 2 to 200 minutes of so-called zone 2 cardiovascular exercise. So this is cardiovascular exercise. So this is cardiovascular exercise. So this is cardiovascular exercise that can be cardiovascular exercise that can be cardiovascular exercise that can be performed at a pretty steady state. We performed at a pretty steady state. We performed at a pretty steady state. We believe that it is indirectly I should believe that it is indirectly I should believe that it is indirectly I should say indirectly through enhancements in say indirectly through enhancements in say indirectly through enhancements in cardiovascular fitness that there are cardiovascular fitness that there are cardiovascular fitness that there are improvements in hippocample dentate improvements in hippocample dentate improvements in hippocample dentate gyrus neurogenesis. What does that mean? gyrus neurogenesis. What does that mean? gyrus neurogenesis. What does that mean? the improvements in cardiovascular the improvements in cardiovascular the improvements in cardiovascular function are indirectly impacting the function are indirectly impacting the function are indirectly impacting the ability of the dentate gyrus to create ability of the dentate gyrus to create ability of the dentate gyrus to create these new neurons. To my knowledge, these new neurons. To my knowledge, these new neurons. To my knowledge, there's no direct relationship between there's no direct relationship between there's no direct relationship between exercise and stimulating the production exercise and stimulating the production exercise and stimulating the production of new neurons in the brain. of new neurons in the brain. of new neurons in the brain. It seems that it's the improvements in It seems that it's the improvements in It seems that it's the improvements in blood flow that also relate to blood flow that also relate to blood flow that also relate to improvements in things like lymphatic improvements in things like lymphatic improvements in things like lymphatic flow, the circulation of lymph fluid flow, the circulation of lymph fluid flow, the circulation of lymph fluid within the brain that are enhancing within the brain that are enhancing within the brain that are enhancing neurogenesis. And that neurogenesis is neurogenesis. And that neurogenesis is neurogenesis. And that neurogenesis is it appears is important. Now in fairness it appears is important. Now in fairness it appears is important. Now in fairness to the landscape of neuroscience and my to the landscape of neuroscience and my to the landscape of neuroscience and my colleagues at Stanford and elsewhere colleagues at Stanford and elsewhere colleagues at Stanford and elsewhere there is a lot of debate as to whether there is a lot of debate as to whether there is a lot of debate as to whether or not there is much if any neurogenesis or not there is much if any neurogenesis or not there is much if any neurogenesis in the adult human brain. But regardless in the adult human brain. But regardless in the adult human brain. But regardless I think the data are quite clear that I think the data are quite clear that I think the data are quite clear that the 180 to 200 minutes minimum of the 180 to 200 minutes minimum of the 180 to 200 minutes minimum of cardiovascular exercise is going to be cardiovascular exercise is going to be cardiovascular exercise is going to be important for other health metrics. Now important for other health metrics. Now important for other health metrics. Now it is clear that exercise can impact it is clear that exercise can impact it is clear that exercise can impact learning and memory through other learning and memory through other learning and memory through other non-neurogenesis non-new neuron type non-neurogenesis non-new neuron type non-neurogenesis non-new neuron type mechanisms. And one of the more exciting mechanisms. And one of the more exciting mechanisms. And one of the more exciting ones that has been studied over the ones that has been studied over the ones that has been studied over the years is this notion of hormones from years is this notion of hormones from years is this notion of hormones from bone traveling in the bloodstream to the bone traveling in the bloodstream to the bone traveling in the bloodstream to the brain and enhancing the function of the brain and enhancing the function of the brain and enhancing the function of the hippocampus. Yes indeed your bones make hippocampus. Yes indeed your bones make hippocampus. Yes indeed your bones make hormones. We call these endocrine hormones. We call these endocrine hormones. We call these endocrine effects. So they're effectively acting effects. So they're effectively acting effects. So they're effectively acting as hormones. And one such chemical is as hormones. And one such chemical is as hormones. And one such chemical is something called osteocalin. Now these something called osteocalin. Now these something called osteocalin. Now these findings arrive to us through various findings arrive to us through various findings arrive to us through various labs but one of the more important labs labs but one of the more important labs labs but one of the more important labs for sake of this discussion today is the for sake of this discussion today is the for sake of this discussion today is the laboratory of Eric Kandell at Colombia laboratory of Eric Kandell at Colombia laboratory of Eric Kandell at Colombia medical school. His laboratory has medical school. His laboratory has medical school. His laboratory has studied the effects of exercise on studied the effects of exercise on studied the effects of exercise on hippocample function and memory and hippocample function and memory and hippocample function and memory and other laboratories have done that as other laboratories have done that as other laboratories have done that as well. And what they found is that well. And what they found is that well. And what they found is that cardiovascular exercise and perhaps cardiovascular exercise and perhaps cardiovascular exercise and perhaps other forms of exercise too, but mainly other forms of exercise too, but mainly other forms of exercise too, but mainly cardiovascular exercise creates the cardiovascular exercise creates the cardiovascular exercise creates the release of osteocalin from the bones release of osteocalin from the bones release of osteocalin from the bones that travels to the brain and to sub that travels to the brain and to sub that travels to the brain and to sub regions of the hippocampus and regions of the hippocampus and regions of the hippocampus and encourages the electrical activity and encourages the electrical activity and encourages the electrical activity and the formation and maintenance of the formation and maintenance of the formation and maintenance of connections within the hippocampus and connections within the hippocampus and connections within the hippocampus and keeps the hippocampus functioning well keeps the hippocampus functioning well keeps the hippocampus functioning well in order to lay down new memories. So in order to lay down new memories. So in order to lay down new memories. So much of our brain real estate is devoted much of our brain real estate is devoted much of our brain real estate is devoted to movement that it's been hypothesized to movement that it's been hypothesized to movement that it's been hypothesized for more than a half century, but for more than a half century, but for more than a half century, but especially in recent years as we've especially in recent years as we've especially in recent years as we've learned more about the function of the learned more about the function of the learned more about the function of the brain at a really detailed circuit level brain at a really detailed circuit level brain at a really detailed circuit level that the relationship between the brain that the relationship between the brain that the relationship between the brain and body and the maintenance and perhaps and body and the maintenance and perhaps and body and the maintenance and perhaps even the improvement of neural circuitry even the improvement of neural circuitry even the improvement of neural circuitry in the brain depends on our body in the brain depends on our body in the brain depends on our body movements and the signal from the body movements and the signal from the body movements and the signal from the body that our brain is still moving. the fact that our brain is still moving. the fact that our brain is still moving. the fact that osteocalin that osteocalin that osteocalin is released from bone and in particular is released from bone and in particular is released from bone and in particular can be released in response to can be released in response to can be released in response to loadbearing exercise. So this would be loadbearing exercise. So this would be loadbearing exercise. So this would be running again weightlifting hasn't been running again weightlifting hasn't been running again weightlifting hasn't been tested directly but one would imagine tested directly but one would imagine tested directly but one would imagine anything that involves jumping and anything that involves jumping and anything that involves jumping and landing or weight lifting or body uh landing or weight lifting or body uh landing or weight lifting or body uh body weight movements and things of that body weight movements and things of that body weight movements and things of that sort. That's a signal to release sort. That's a signal to release sort. That's a signal to release osteocalin and we know that signal osteocalin and we know that signal osteocalin and we know that signal occurs that is directly reflective of occurs that is directly reflective of occurs that is directly reflective of the fact that the body was moving and the fact that the body was moving and the fact that the body was moving and moving in particular ways. In fact, you moving in particular ways. In fact, you moving in particular ways. In fact, you could imagine that big bones like your could imagine that big bones like your could imagine that big bones like your femur are going to release more femur are going to release more femur are going to release more osteocalin or be in a position to osteocalin or be in a position to osteocalin or be in a position to release more osteoccalin than five move release more osteoccalin than five move release more osteoccalin than five move five movements like the movements of the five movements like the movements of the five movements like the movements of the digits. And this idea that the body is digits. And this idea that the body is digits. And this idea that the body is constantly signaling to the brain about constantly signaling to the brain about constantly signaling to the brain about the status of the body and the varying the status of the body and the varying the status of the body and the varying needs of the brain to update its brain needs of the brain to update its brain needs of the brain to update its brain circuitry is a really attractive idea circuitry is a really attractive idea circuitry is a really attractive idea that fits entirely with the biology of that fits entirely with the biology of that fits entirely with the biology of exercise, osteocalin, and hippocample exercise, osteocalin, and hippocample exercise, osteocalin, and hippocample function. Now, I certainly don't want to function. Now, I certainly don't want to function. Now, I certainly don't want to give the message that just moving, just give the message that just moving, just give the message that just moving, just exercise is sufficient to keep the exercise is sufficient to keep the exercise is sufficient to keep the neural architecture of your brain neural architecture of your brain neural architecture of your brain healthy, young, and able to learn. While healthy, young, and able to learn. While healthy, young, and able to learn. While that might be true, it's also important that might be true, it's also important that might be true, it's also important to actually engage in attempts to learn to actually engage in attempts to learn to actually engage in attempts to learn new material, either physical material, new material, either physical material, new material, either physical material, so new types of movements and skills so new types of movements and skills so new types of movements and skills and/or new types of cognitive and/or new types of cognitive and/or new types of cognitive information, languages, mathematics, information, languages, mathematics, information, languages, mathematics, history, uh current events, uh all sorts history, uh current events, uh all sorts history, uh current events, uh all sorts of things um that involve your brain. of things um that involve your brain. of things um that involve your brain. Nonetheless, it's clear that physical Nonetheless, it's clear that physical Nonetheless, it's clear that physical movement and cognitive ability and the movement and cognitive ability and the movement and cognitive ability and the potential to enhance cognitive ability potential to enhance cognitive ability potential to enhance cognitive ability and the ability to learn new physical and the ability to learn new physical and the ability to learn new physical skills are intimately connected and skills are intimately connected and skills are intimately connected and osteocalin appears to be at least one osteocalin appears to be at least one osteocalin appears to be at least one way in which that brain body way in which that brain body way in which that brain body relationship is established and relationship is established and relationship is established and maintained. Next, I'm going to tell you maintained. Next, I'm going to tell you maintained. Next, I'm going to tell you about a study which points out the about a study which points out the about a study which points out the immense value of visual images for immense value of visual images for immense value of visual images for laying down memories. And you can laying down memories. And you can laying down memories. And you can leverage this information. And this leverage this information. And this leverage this information. And this involves both the taking of photographs, involves both the taking of photographs, involves both the taking of photographs, something that's actually quite easily something that's actually quite easily something that's actually quite easily done these days with your phone as well done these days with your phone as well done these days with your phone as well as your ability to take mental as your ability to take mental as your ability to take mental photographs by literally snapping your photographs by literally snapping your photographs by literally snapping your eyelids shut. So, I just briefly want to eyelids shut. So, I just briefly want to eyelids shut. So, I just briefly want to describe this paper because it provides describe this paper because it provides describe this paper because it provides a tool that you can leverage in your a tool that you can leverage in your a tool that you can leverage in your attempt to learn and remember things attempt to learn and remember things attempt to learn and remember things better. The title of this paper is better. The title of this paper is better. The title of this paper is photographic memory. The effects of our photographic memory. The effects of our photographic memory. The effects of our voluitional photo takingaking on memory voluitional photo takingaking on memory voluitional photo takingaking on memory for visual and auditory aspects of an for visual and auditory aspects of an for visual and auditory aspects of an experience. It refers to photographic experience. It refers to photographic experience. It refers to photographic memory not in the context of memory not in the context of memory not in the context of photographic memory that we normally photographic memory that we normally photographic memory that we normally hear about where people are truly hear about where people are truly hear about where people are truly photographic. Look at a page and somehow photographic. Look at a page and somehow photographic. Look at a page and somehow absorb all that information and commit absorb all that information and commit absorb all that information and commit it to memory. But rather the use of it to memory. But rather the use of it to memory. But rather the use of camera photographs or the use of mental camera photographs or the use of mental camera photographs or the use of mental camera photographs. literally looking at camera photographs. literally looking at camera photographs. literally looking at something and deciding blink and something and deciding blink and something and deciding blink and snapping a so to speak snapping a snapping a so to speak snapping a snapping a so to speak snapping a snapshot of whatever it is that you were snapshot of whatever it is that you were snapshot of whatever it is that you were looking at and remembering the content. looking at and remembering the content. looking at and remembering the content. Two years ago I was in an Uber and I Two years ago I was in an Uber and I Two years ago I was in an Uber and I looked out the window and it was a looked out the window and it was a looked out the window and it was a street scene. I was actually in New York street scene. I was actually in New York street scene. I was actually in New York at the time and I decided for reasons at the time and I decided for reasons at the time and I decided for reasons that are still unclear to me to take a that are still unclear to me to take a that are still unclear to me to take a mental snapshot of this city street mental snapshot of this city street mental snapshot of this city street image even though nothing interesting in image even though nothing interesting in image even though nothing interesting in particular was happening. And um I do particular was happening. And um I do particular was happening. And um I do recall that there was a guy wearing a recall that there was a guy wearing a recall that there was a guy wearing a yellow shirt walking. there was some yellow shirt walking. there was some yellow shirt walking. there was some construction etc. I can still see that construction etc. I can still see that construction etc. I can still see that image in my mind's eye because I took image in my mind's eye because I took image in my mind's eye because I took this mental snapshot. This paper this mental snapshot. This paper this mental snapshot. This paper addresses whether or not this mental addresses whether or not this mental addresses whether or not this mental snapshotting thing is real and raise the snapshotting thing is real and raise the snapshotting thing is real and raise the hypothesis that if people are allowed to hypothesis that if people are allowed to hypothesis that if people are allowed to choose what they take photos of that choose what they take photos of that choose what they take photos of that taking photos again this is with a taking photos again this is with a taking photos again this is with a camera not mental snapshotting that camera not mental snapshotting that camera not mental snapshotting that taking those photos would actually taking those photos would actually taking those photos would actually enhance their memory for those objects enhance their memory for those objects enhance their memory for those objects those places those people and in fact those places those people and in fact those places those people and in fact details of those object places and details of those object places and details of those object places and people and indeed that's what they people and indeed that's what they people and indeed that's what they found. What does this mean? It means if found. What does this mean? It means if found. What does this mean? It means if you really want to remember something or you really want to remember something or you really want to remember something or somebody, take a photo of that thing or somebody, take a photo of that thing or somebody, take a photo of that thing or person, pay attention while you take the person, pay attention while you take the person, pay attention while you take the photo, but it doesn't really matter if photo, but it doesn't really matter if photo, but it doesn't really matter if you look at the photo again. That you look at the photo again. That you look at the photo again. That framing up of the photograph stamps down framing up of the photograph stamps down framing up of the photograph stamps down a visual image in your mind that is more a visual image in your mind that is more a visual image in your mind that is more robust at serving a memory than had you robust at serving a memory than had you robust at serving a memory than had you just looked at that thing with your own just looked at that thing with your own just looked at that thing with your own eyes. Very interesting and raises all eyes. Very interesting and raises all eyes. Very interesting and raises all sorts of questions for me about whether sorts of questions for me about whether sorts of questions for me about whether or not it's because you're framing up a or not it's because you're framing up a or not it's because you're framing up a small aperture, a small portion of the small aperture, a small portion of the small aperture, a small portion of the visual scene. That's one logical visual scene. That's one logical visual scene. That's one logical interpretation, although they didn't interpretation, although they didn't interpretation, although they didn't test that. The reason I find this so test that. The reason I find this so test that. The reason I find this so interesting is that a lot of what we try interesting is that a lot of what we try interesting is that a lot of what we try and learn is visual. And for a lot of and learn is visual. And for a lot of and learn is visual. And for a lot of people, the ability to learn visual people, the ability to learn visual people, the ability to learn visual information feels challenging. And we'll information feels challenging. And we'll information feels challenging. And we'll look at something and we'll try and look at something and we'll try and look at something and we'll try and create some detailed understanding of create some detailed understanding of create some detailed understanding of it. We'll try and understand the it. We'll try and understand the it. We'll try and understand the relationships between things in that relationships between things in that relationships between things in that scene. It does appear based on the study scene. It does appear based on the study scene. It does appear based on the study that the mere decision to take a mental that the mere decision to take a mental that the mere decision to take a mental snapshot like okay I'm going to blink my snapshot like okay I'm going to blink my snapshot like okay I'm going to blink my eyelids and I'm going to take a snapshot eyelids and I'm going to take a snapshot eyelids and I'm going to take a snapshot of whatever it is I see can actually of whatever it is I see can actually of whatever it is I see can actually stamp down a visual memory much in the stamp down a visual memory much in the stamp down a visual memory much in the same way that a camera can stamp down a same way that a camera can stamp down a same way that a camera can stamp down a visual memory of course through vastly visual memory of course through vastly visual memory of course through vastly distinct mechanisms. No discussion of distinct mechanisms. No discussion of distinct mechanisms. No discussion of memory would be complete without a memory would be complete without a memory would be complete without a discussion of the ever intriguing discussion of the ever intriguing discussion of the ever intriguing phenomena known as deja vu. The way this phenomena known as deja vu. The way this phenomena known as deja vu. The way this works has been defined largely by the works has been defined largely by the works has been defined largely by the wonderful work of Susumu Tonagawa at wonderful work of Susumu Tonagawa at wonderful work of Susumu Tonagawa at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MIT. I should also mention the beautiful MIT. I should also mention the beautiful MIT. I should also mention the beautiful work of Mark Mayford at the Scripps work of Mark Mayford at the Scripps work of Mark Mayford at the Scripps Institute and UC San Diego. Here's what Institute and UC San Diego. Here's what Institute and UC San Diego. Here's what they discovered. They evaluated the they discovered. They evaluated the they discovered. They evaluated the patterns of neural firing in the patterns of neural firing in the patterns of neural firing in the hippocampus as subjects learn new hippocampus as subjects learn new hippocampus as subjects learn new things. Neuron A fires, then neuron B things. Neuron A fires, then neuron B things. Neuron A fires, then neuron B fires, then neuron C fires in a fires, then neuron C fires in a fires, then neuron C fires in a particular sequence. Again, the firing particular sequence. Again, the firing particular sequence. Again, the firing of neurons in a particular sequence, of neurons in a particular sequence, of neurons in a particular sequence, like the playing of keys on a piano in a like the playing of keys on a piano in a like the playing of keys on a piano in a particular sequence, leads to a particular sequence, leads to a particular sequence, leads to a particular song on the piano and leads particular song on the piano and leads particular song on the piano and leads to a particular memory of an experience to a particular memory of an experience to a particular memory of an experience within the brain. within the brain. within the brain. They then used some molecular tools and They then used some molecular tools and They then used some molecular tools and tricks to label and capture those tricks to label and capture those tricks to label and capture those neurons such that they could go back neurons such that they could go back neurons such that they could go back later and activate those neurons in later and activate those neurons in later and activate those neurons in either the same sequence or in a either the same sequence or in a either the same sequence or in a different sequence to the one that different sequence to the one that different sequence to the one that occurred during the formation of the occurred during the formation of the occurred during the formation of the memory. And to make a long story short memory. And to make a long story short memory. And to make a long story short and to summarize multiple papers and to summarize multiple papers and to summarize multiple papers published in incredibly high tier published in incredibly high tier published in incredibly high tier journals, journals like Nature and journals, journals like Nature and journals, journals like Nature and Science which are extremely stringent Science which are extremely stringent Science which are extremely stringent found that found that found that whether or not those particular neurons whether or not those particular neurons whether or not those particular neurons were played in the precise sequence that were played in the precise sequence that were played in the precise sequence that happened when they encoded the memory or happened when they encoded the memory or happened when they encoded the memory or whether or not those neurons were played whether or not those neurons were played whether or not those neurons were played in a different sequence or even if those in a different sequence or even if those in a different sequence or even if those neurons were played activated. that is neurons were played activated. that is neurons were played activated. that is all at once with no temporal sequence all at once with no temporal sequence all at once with no temporal sequence all firing in concert all at once all firing in concert all at once all firing in concert all at once evoked the same behavior and in some evoked the same behavior and in some evoked the same behavior and in some sense the same memory. So at a neural sense the same memory. So at a neural sense the same memory. So at a neural circuit level this is deja vu whether or circuit level this is deja vu whether or circuit level this is deja vu whether or not the same sort of phenomenon occurs not the same sort of phenomenon occurs not the same sort of phenomenon occurs when you're walking down the street and when you're walking down the street and when you're walking down the street and suddenly you feel as if wow I feel like suddenly you feel as if wow I feel like suddenly you feel as if wow I feel like I've been here before. You meet someone I've been here before. You meet someone I've been here before. You meet someone and you feel like gosh I feel like I and you feel like gosh I feel like I and you feel like gosh I feel like I know you. I feel like there's some know you. I feel like there's some know you. I feel like there's some familiarity here that I can't quite put familiarity here that I can't quite put familiarity here that I can't quite put my finger on. We don't know for sure my finger on. We don't know for sure my finger on. We don't know for sure that that's what's happening, but this that that's what's happening, but this that that's what's happening, but this is the most mechanistic and logical is the most mechanistic and logical is the most mechanistic and logical explanation for what has for many explanation for what has for many explanation for what has for many decades, if not hundreds of years, has decades, if not hundreds of years, has decades, if not hundreds of years, has been described as déja vu. I'd like to been described as déja vu. I'd like to been described as déja vu. I'd like to cover one additional tool that you can cover one additional tool that you can cover one additional tool that you can use to improve learning and memory. This use to improve learning and memory. This use to improve learning and memory. This is based on a paper from none other than is based on a paper from none other than is based on a paper from none other than Wendy Suzuki at New York University. The Wendy Suzuki at New York University. The Wendy Suzuki at New York University. The title of this paper will tell you a lot title of this paper will tell you a lot title of this paper will tell you a lot about where we're going. The title is about where we're going. The title is about where we're going. The title is brief daily meditation enhances brief daily meditation enhances brief daily meditation enhances attention, memory, mood, and emotional attention, memory, mood, and emotional attention, memory, mood, and emotional regulation in non-experienced regulation in non-experienced regulation in non-experienced meditators. This is a study that meditators. This is a study that meditators. This is a study that involved subjects aged 18 to 45, none of involved subjects aged 18 to 45, none of involved subjects aged 18 to 45, none of whom were experienced meditators prior whom were experienced meditators prior whom were experienced meditators prior to this study. to this study. to this study. There were two general groups in this There were two general groups in this There were two general groups in this study. study. study. One group did a 13minute long One group did a 13minute long One group did a 13minute long meditation. And this meditation was a meditation. And this meditation was a meditation. And this meditation was a fairly conventional meditation. They fairly conventional meditation. They fairly conventional meditation. They would sit or lie down. They would do would sit or lie down. They would do would sit or lie down. They would do somewhat of a body scan, evaluating, for somewhat of a body scan, evaluating, for somewhat of a body scan, evaluating, for instance, how tense or relaxed they felt instance, how tense or relaxed they felt instance, how tense or relaxed they felt throughout their body, and they would throughout their body, and they would throughout their body, and they would focus on their breathing, trying to focus on their breathing, trying to focus on their breathing, trying to bring their attention back to their bring their attention back to their bring their attention back to their breathing and to the state of their body breathing and to the state of their body breathing and to the state of their body as the meditation progressed. The other as the meditation progressed. The other as the meditation progressed. The other group, which we can call the control group, which we can call the control group, which we can call the control group, listen to, of all things, a group, listen to, of all things, a group, listen to, of all things, a podcast for an equivalent amount of podcast for an equivalent amount of podcast for an equivalent amount of time, but they were not instructed to do time, but they were not instructed to do time, but they were not instructed to do any kind of body scan or pay attention any kind of body scan or pay attention any kind of body scan or pay attention to their breathing. Every subject in the to their breathing. Every subject in the to their breathing. Every subject in the study either meditated daily or listened study either meditated daily or listened study either meditated daily or listened to a equivalent duration podcast daily to a equivalent duration podcast daily to a equivalent duration podcast daily for a period of eight weeks. So the for a period of eight weeks. So the for a period of eight weeks. So the takeaways from the study are takeaways from the study are takeaways from the study are severalfold. First of all, that daily severalfold. First of all, that daily severalfold. First of all, that daily meditation of 13 minutes can enhance meditation of 13 minutes can enhance meditation of 13 minutes can enhance your ability to pay attention and to your ability to pay attention and to your ability to pay attention and to learn. It can truly enhance memory. learn. It can truly enhance memory. learn. It can truly enhance memory. However, you need to do that for at However, you need to do that for at However, you need to do that for at least 8 weeks in order to start to see least 8 weeks in order to start to see least 8 weeks in order to start to see the effects to occur. and we have to the effects to occur. and we have to the effects to occur. and we have to presume that you have to continue those presume that you have to continue those presume that you have to continue those uh meditation training sessions. In uh meditation training sessions. In uh meditation training sessions. In fact, they found that if people only did fact, they found that if people only did fact, they found that if people only did four weeks of meditation, these effects four weeks of meditation, these effects four weeks of meditation, these effects didn't show up. Now, eight weeks might didn't show up. Now, eight weeks might didn't show up. Now, eight weeks might seem like a long time, but I think that seem like a long time, but I think that seem like a long time, but I think that 13 minutes a day is not actually that 13 minutes a day is not actually that 13 minutes a day is not actually that big of a time commitment. And the big of a time commitment. And the big of a time commitment. And the results of this study certainly results of this study certainly results of this study certainly incentivize me to start adopting a I'm incentivize me to start adopting a I'm incentivize me to start adopting a I'm going for 15 minutes a day now. I've going for 15 minutes a day now. I've going for 15 minutes a day now. I've been a on andoff meditator for a number been a on andoff meditator for a number been a on andoff meditator for a number of years. I've been pretty good about it of years. I've been pretty good about it of years. I've been pretty good about it lately, but I confess I've been doing lately, but I confess I've been doing lately, but I confess I've been doing far shorter meditations of anywhere from far shorter meditations of anywhere from far shorter meditations of anywhere from 3 to five or maybe 10 minutes. I'm going 3 to five or maybe 10 minutes. I'm going 3 to five or maybe 10 minutes. I'm going to ramp that up to 15 minutes a day. And to ramp that up to 15 minutes a day. And to ramp that up to 15 minutes a day. And I'm doing that specifically to try and I'm doing that specifically to try and I'm doing that specifically to try and access these improvements in cognitive access these improvements in cognitive access these improvements in cognitive ability and our abilities to learn. ability and our abilities to learn. ability and our abilities to learn. Today, we covered a lot of aspects of Today, we covered a lot of aspects of Today, we covered a lot of aspects of memory and how to improve your memory. memory and how to improve your memory. memory and how to improve your memory. However, for sake of what was discussed However, for sake of what was discussed However, for sake of what was discussed today, please understand that any number today, please understand that any number today, please understand that any number of different neurochemicals can evoke or of different neurochemicals can evoke or of different neurochemicals can evoke or can increase the amount of adrenaline can increase the amount of adrenaline can increase the amount of adrenaline that's circulating in your brain and that's circulating in your brain and that's circulating in your brain and body. It really doesn't matter how you body. It really doesn't matter how you body. It really doesn't matter how you evoke the adrenaline release because evoke the adrenaline release because evoke the adrenaline release because remember adrenaline is the final common remember adrenaline is the final common remember adrenaline is the final common pathway by which particular experiences, pathway by which particular experiences, pathway by which particular experiences, particular perceptions are stamped into particular perceptions are stamped into particular perceptions are stamped into memory, which answers our very first memory, which answers our very first memory, which answers our very first question raised at the beginning of the question raised at the beginning of the question raised at the beginning of the episode, which is why do we remember episode, which is why do we remember episode, which is why do we remember anything at all? Right? That was the anything at all? Right? That was the anything at all? Right? That was the question that we raised. Why is it that question that we raised. Why is it that question that we raised. Why is it that from morning till night and throughout from morning till night and throughout from morning till night and throughout your entire life you have tons of your entire life you have tons of your entire life you have tons of sensory experience, tons of perceptions? sensory experience, tons of perceptions? sensory experience, tons of perceptions? Why is it that some are remembered and Why is it that some are remembered and Why is it that some are remembered and others are not? And while I would never others are not? And while I would never others are not? And while I would never want to distill an important question want to distill an important question want to distill an important question such as that down to a one molecule type such as that down to a one molecule type such as that down to a one molecule type of answer, I think we can confidently of answer, I think we can confidently of answer, I think we can confidently say based on the vast amount of animal say based on the vast amount of animal say based on the vast amount of animal and human research data that and human research data that and human research data that epinephrine, adrenaline, and some of the epinephrine, adrenaline, and some of the epinephrine, adrenaline, and some of the other chemicals that it acts with in other chemicals that it acts with in other chemicals that it acts with in concert is in fact the way that we concert is in fact the way that we concert is in fact the way that we remember particular events and not all remember particular events and not all remember particular events and not all events. Once again, thank you for events. Once again, thank you for events. Once again, thank you for joining me today to discuss the joining me today to discuss the joining me today to discuss the neurobiology of learning and memory and neurobiology of learning and memory and neurobiology of learning and memory and how to improve your memory using how to improve your memory using how to improve your memory using science-based tools. And last, but science-based tools. And last, but science-based tools. And last, but certainly not least, thank you for your certainly not least, thank you for your certainly not least, thank you for your interest in science.