Father Of Quantum Computing: How To Think Like A Genius - David Deutsch

People of the uk and ireland i'm coming to you live imagine that me on stage in your city dublin is completely sold out but everywhere else is got limited tickets left and you can get yours now at chris williamson dot live this is a custom built live show i absolutely adore it spent over a year working on it so if you're a fan of everything modern wisdom come and see me on stage this october around the uk and ireland chris williamson dot life. I'm kind of fascinated in your world view from a. Personal perspective from a person's perspective we can talk about how important is for society of the civilization of the humanity is a whole to think about the importance of optimism in our capacity to solve problems and stuff like that i'm kind of interested in how an individual takes that as well i think that might be an interesting tension obviously we've had all of this most recent stuff about anthropic research is leaving and and be over fears of AI and super intelligence and recursive stuff i don't know if you're interested in that if you kind of a little bit bored of it i've been talking about it a lot i'm also interested in. How your world views changed over the last fifteen years since the last book human potential and stuff like that so we can we can start off and then scurry down whatever rabbit holes sound interesting if that seems good to you. Show one by the way i think i agree with that maxim. So you know what whenever someone doesn't understand you it's your fault not there's a golden retriever literally are you telling me that i've got to get out of jail free card today. Yeah yeah you you're human yes say more than that why is it the default of misunderstanding why does that lie in a direction to i'm so i'm i'm as you will know i'm a follower of the philosopher carl popper. And he has a theory of knowledge which is in my view. Streets ahead of everyone else in the in the twentieth century he he's he's he's strange strange kind of reputation because he's very well known highly respected you know people always put him on the list. Of the ten top philosophers or something like that and in science especially they always talk about poppers criterion for distinguishing science from philosophy or from pseudoscience and yet. His actual philosophy is not very well understood and and. One of the tenants of his philosophy is that there is only one way of creating knowledge that the details are different but knowledge as created by. The process of evolution as created by a scientist mathematician a child learning to speak their first language those processes are all. More alike than they are different the differences are pretty inessential. And in particular the the process of learning something new like. Learning a new law of physics that one has discovered or learning an existing piece of knowledge like from somewhere someone else. That is all the same process mentally in all of them the the knowledge that is learned comes from within the learner. So you're learning something you can download it like a computer you have to guess what the other person means. And at first you will guess wrong and so you will have to test those guesses and and so on so the the if if that process. Goes wrong it is because the. The the teacher or the professor yeah the communicator has not. Pitch did to meet your problem situation. Yes go ahead why. What is it that most people misunderstand about being wrong i think we all have this aversion to making mistakes to not understanding to putting errors into the way that we understand the world or how it is interpreting something else. Is there a better framing for how people should think about wrongness. Yes i'm so as papa said i'm gonna have to stop me quoting him every minute or two. We are all alike in our infinite ignorance or longer we may all know. Different things. Peace different pieces of knowledge but in our infinite ignorance we are all alike so this all comes from the idea that since there's an infinite. Distance to go and we all have different finite amounts of knowledge. We are all at like i say in in my book we're all at the beginning of infinity we're only ever at the beginning. And so we we have something in common with everyone else who is also at the beginning and and to hold oneself up as an authority. Is a philosophical mistake as well as. I am what can you call it a sociological mistake or cultural mistake it's it's it's a power play. Rather than a participation in the growth of knowledge which which we should all be participating in. How should someone hold strong convictions if we all kind of need to remember that we can be completely mistaken at all times and where vast in our ignorance and partial in our knowledge. Yes well as you're suggesting here it's it's a psychological matter so we should not be looking for certainty. We should be looking to correct errors so when when sometimes when people say i'm certain about something it means that they have. Investigated all the possible ways it could be different and they satisfied themselves that those are all wrong and they have their reasons and they but more often. Certainty is regarded as as a virtue in in in past times. Faith obedience that sort of state of mind was regarded as virtuous and people. Judge not only each other but themselves according how to how much of that they had now in modern times especially with the growth of knowledge accelerating more and more. In the last couple of hundred years everyone's had the experience of well everywhere every adult that has had the experience of being proved wrong about something that they were sure was right. Or something happened that they were sure would never happen that that's an answer one should. I'm in from that experience people don't but one should infer from that experience that the subjective sensation of being certain is no guide to the truth. It's it's no guide at all and neither is this this is a bit even harder to like internalize neither is. The extent of knowledge or ignorance because somebody can be very ignorant or even very malevolent. And yet on a particular thing they might have the truth and you might not so it's no good saying that's a bad person i won't listen to them. Because you might be missing the one truth that would save you. So again like i say in the book if your enemy says that he's gonna come and kill you it might be advisable. To believe your enemy when you disbelieve your friend who says i don't mind him he's just the bark is worse than his bite. So you see it has nothing it has nothing to do with being knowledgeable it has nothing to do with being benevolent we're all alike in our ability. So the only way to judge ideas is not by. Someone's authority or by one's own authority or by how sure one is but only by the criterion of weather you have a good explanation for why. That truth is is has had its errors corrected. Better than all the other truth you've heard or can think of i can imagine a situation where this this becomes or at least it feels to an individual very effortful to go through the entire working. Of the equation in order to arrive at the truth as opposed to using the shortcuts as opposed to saying well this person seems to be from an illustrious background and they have been right about other things before seemingly or other people seem to respect their opinion or they're saying it with a level of further that implies that they know what they're talking about. What is a practical way for people to not take. Half of the afternoon to decide which sandwich they want or which would be a more optimal yoga to purchase how can people sort of apply this to life without it becoming clunky and slowing them down so we have a theory about. Situations that we're in you know you talk about sandwiches so i go into town and buy a sandwich from from a sandwich shop and how do i know it's not poisoned how do i know it's not off how do i know that that i haven't been handed the wrong sandwich and so on well as you say. If i went back to first principles to work all that out it would take all afternoon and i would be starving to death by the time i am so the rational thing to do as i said is to form a theory i have a theory. About how chains of sandwich shops work how how they are regulated. For example by the government or by the market or the shop may have a particular ethos that i think they really do have rather than pretending and so on in the case where i can't say that. Then i will have to use different criteria and in that particular case i myself would not buy a sandwich unless i had those. That kind of history and that kind of idea of where this is coming from where is coming from intellectually as well as where is coming from physically in mind. So you don't you don't have to go through the whole thing because in short. Not only can i am i able to criticize ideas myself i'm able to formulate and criticize ideas about other people it's just that. When i formulate an idea about about the knowledge of you know the doctor or the airline engineers who prepared the airplane that i'm going to fly on. The the i don't go by their reputation i go by that theory. And a small fact can destroy a large reputation. Like if i'm due to fly and then i read in the newspaper in the morning that airline has had a scandal where the engineers have have been shoddy in preparing the plane i may well not fly. Even though i may also think that the chance of. The plane going wrong with me on it are actually tiny but you know maybe now the only one in a thousand and ideally i'd like it to be one in a million. But i could be wrong always does that mean is certainty something that we should ever aspire to. No we should aspire not to have any uncertainty. Yes i mean if you want a life of scientific research. Then it's highly desirable that you enjoy the sensation of being baffled. Of being in the state of conflict of thinking well now it looks like this is true but it can't be true and that sensation. Is for example what it what attracts me to to to scientific research i don't think one should even aspire to believe anything i think belief is a. Is a corrupt kind of category that has come down to us from from play to and and later from from christianity and islam and so on most religions don't don't value belief. They value ritual and conformity and ways of life. Belief was something introduced by christianity and it's rather weird if you think about it as as. Percy shelley said in the in the. In the essay for which he got expelled from oxford university he pointed out that you you can't believe or disbelieve something by an act of will. It's got to come via your reason therefore calling disbelief. A an immoral thing doesn't make. sense. Do you know Oscar Wilde's idea of the Oxford Manor? Have you come across this? Don't think so, no. Beautiful. It's just this one line. It refers to the Oxford Manor as the ability to play gracefully with ideas rather than falling into violent or rigid opinions. I think, in my world, which is significantly less salubrious than academia, but maybe just as cutthroat and as much backbiting, the internet is really quick to show its own smarts by pointing out the flaws of others. One of the problems that I've found is that the ability to put on a hypothetical hat, or in my parlance a bro-scientist hat, look, I'm just trying to play gracefully with ideas. Please give me enough degrees of freedom here to maybe be wrong, but because production and publication of ideas are one and the same on the internet, so you're coming up with things in real time, and then they're broadcast out into the world, which means there is no scratchpad. There is no whiteboard that's not publicly available. The whiteboard and the lecture become one and the same, and that means that's been lost, at least in a way that a lot of people consume ideas and understand information and see the debate go on. I get the sense that what's happened over the last decade or so is a slow increase in the seductivity of certainty and a derogation of uncertainty or incongruence or lack of coherence or something like that because it becomes a target immediately for people on the internet or critics or naysayers or enemies or whatever to point the finger, look, he doesn't know that much about this thing because he was pontificating and trying to play gracefully with ideas. Therefore, that means that he must be wrong about da-da-da-da-da-da-da-da as well, which is, I guess, in one way, we could call this weaponized uncertainty, that it is being used as a tool to dismiss someone as a wider thinker as opposed to, hey, this is cool. He missed the mark with that, but it's fun. He's able to try and play gracefully with ideas. I thought that kind of related here. Yes. Ideally, Twitter or X is the ideal medium for conjecture, for just throwing ideas out and then having them criticized and come back to you and so on, but because of the phenomenon you're talking about, you can't really do that. I have long ago stopped doing that on Twitter, so I think twice and three times and four times before putting something on Twitter on X. It's possible to take a middle ground and say, either ask it as a question, does anyone think so-and-so is true, or you could say, I guess so-and-so might be true, or if so-and-so were true, then it might answer this other question. Look at the throat-clearing land acknowledgement that we need to do before we actually put an idea out in a desperate attempt to dampen its impact. Yes. I think it's inevitable. There are plenty of other places to publish conjectures. The dinner table, maybe. Yes, in private or in a private chat or in a more public thing where one labels it as conjecture. For example, I'm just finishing a book on the Fermi paradox or the Fermi problem, and I have some conjectures there, which I think are slightly strange. I think they're possible solutions to the Fermi problem, but I am sure certain, which I shouldn't be, that they are not true. I just would like to put them out there in the form, look how easy it is to make up ideas about this and for them to be wrong. That's the idea. So I've written it as a science fiction story set in another universe, not in our universe, so I don't have to answer for the discrepancies between this universe and our universe. I just mention that because that's one of many ways one can get criticism of conjectures, but also, always, one should think carefully about when to expose an idea to criticism. If one does it too early, it may cut off lines of thought, which, although false, would lead to something true if one perceived them seriously. Oh, that's so cool. That is so cool. 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Right now, you can get a free sample pack of Element's most popular flavors with your first purchase by going to the link in the description below or heading to drinklmnt.com slash modernwisdom. That's drinklmnt.com slash modernwisdom. So you're saying that if you have this nascent early-stage idea and you put that out, somebody comes in with a certainty in criticism, which cuts off at the knees the progress of this particular idea of yours. You rob yourself from the opportunity of being wrong in a new way, or wrong in multiple new ways, which would give you the idea. That is so fun. Also, I've got to call you out for this. The fact that you have been able to try and play gracefully with ideas with regards to the Fermi problem by constructing an entire new fictional universe in an attempt to get yourself a few million light-years of distance away from potential criticism is kind of hilarious. What have you come to believe about the— It's also cool that you call it the Fermi problem, not the paradox, I suppose. What have you come to believe about the Fermi problem? Well, we don't know the answer. You could also call it the Fermi mystery, but it's not so unusual. We don't know most things, so we don't know whether we are alone in the universe. We might be or we might not be. The point I wanted to make is that it's easy to come up with explanations for why the aliens or their robots are not here yet. Like I said, this is not of the form of problems I like. Namely, it looks as though it must be so-and-so, and yet it also looks as though it can't be so-and-so. So that's the kind of thing that I enjoy thinking about because there are two things which appear to be in collision, like quantum gravity. No matter how you think about it, no matter whatever angle you look at it, it still seems like a collision. But the Fermi problem, it's really a collision between one fantasy and another fantasy. We just don't know. Get over it. Okay. Getting back down to terra firma, is it fair to say that you hold optimism as a philosophical stance? Yes. Yes. Although by optimism, I don't mean having a cheerful outlook on life or thinking that everything is going to be all right as a matter of principle. It's more of an explanation for failure than a prophecy of success. Whenever something goes wrong, it's because we have not yet created the knowledge to make it go right. It's always a matter of knowledge. So what you asked earlier about when you fail to persuade someone of something or when you fail to teach someone something, it's because you haven't yet thought of the way of meeting their problem and of whether you really should be meeting their problem. Maybe you should both go and do something better. So is it really necessary for this other person to agree with you on this thing? That's a uniform application of optimism. Pessimism is the opposite. It's where you regard failure as a barrier to ever getting out of the situation or solving the problem or going from bad to good. Going from bad to good is always possible, and when we fail, it is always because we don't yet have the knowledge to succeed. Trey Lockerbie Should this broader worldview around optimism, should that extend to how we feel about our own lives individually? Because I have to assume that if you see failure as a way marker en route towards success, that's quite agentic. It's sort of personal determination. I have some sovereignty here. I imagine it must be difficult because you mentioned it's not just having a sort of cheerful, rosy outlook on life, but I imagine in some ways it must be quite difficult to maintain a non-rosy, non-cheerful outlook on life if you have a worldview that is predicated on this kind of optimism because you're going to see your own personal struggles through the lens of, well, I just need some more knowledge and I'm sure that I can overcome this thing, or I can make the decision that I don't need to overcome this thing. I'm interested in how this sort of relates to the individual and how they do deal with adversity and challenges in their own life. Richard Dawkins So optimism is no guarantee that you will solve the problem. You might have a terminal illness, and the doctor says to you, you've got X time to live, and you might think, well, you might think correctly. That's because we don't yet have the medical knowledge. Okay, that doesn't mean that there exists a way of you to quickly bone up on all the relevant medical knowledge, solve that problem, cure that disease, and then survive, although that has happened remarkably often. Somebody who's been diagnosed with something that's supposedly terminal has just speedrun the solution for it and fixed themselves. Yes, it has happened, so it's not impossible. That's like those wartime medics where they were the only medic available in the tent, and somehow they got shot, and you see these guys without anesthetic, with a scalpel out, operating on themselves. It feels a little bit like that. Yes, and the lack of knowledge there might extend further than just the knowledge of how to perform an operation on yourself. There's a war going on. That in itself should not have happened. With better knowledge, it would not have happened. But again, that's not a formula for correcting it yourself in the tent. On the other hand, you can't say what you will solve. You might solve it, but in regard to what you do, you do not think this is insoluble. You do not think this is how far reason can reach, and from now on, reason doesn't have any access. That's always false. Why do you think it is that pessimism so often masquerades as sophistication? I thought you were going to ask a different question. Why it masquerades as sophistication? Say you're writing a story about some characters who you're making the reader like the characters, and suddenly one of the characters is going to get killed, and you're thinking, can they be saved? In the last chapter, they're not saved. Now, that is easy to write because knowledge in fiction is very hard to create just as in real life. To make a realistic story about how this situation, which you've set up to look as though that favored character is going to die, how that can end up with them being saved is hard. It's similarly hard to solving it in real life. So some authors just pull the solution out of a hat. there's a deus ex machina, as the ancient Greeks presumably didn't say. So if you do that, the audience will be disappointed. They'll say, oh, we've been had. I've just spent two hours watching this movie or several days reading this long novel, and the author has led me along, and then he's tricked me at the end. It was all a dream. For example, yeah, that's another way of doing it. So it's all a dream. But similarly, what is not really realized is that the opposite tactic of saying, not only does he die, but everybody dies, like in Hamlet, that is equally a cop-out. Anyone can write that ending, just like anyone can write the deus ex machina ending. What you need to do is to solve the problem so that you will have told the reader some knowledge. If it's a good novel, it should be knowledge about life in general, which they can use to understand the world and their own life and their friends and so on. It should enrich the person. But having it end unhappily is always a cheat, and that's true whether it's a happy or a sad ending pulled out of a hat. What's a current problem that you think people are most unnecessarily pessimistic about right now? Well, I guess it's the AI doom scenario. It might be the climate catastrophe scenario. I'm not sure exactly whether it's the same people who are worried about both. I think the Venn diagram has probably got a good bit of crossover, yeah. Yeah, they are both examples of looking at a problem and thinking of it as a barrier. So you say, so-and-so could happen and we could all die. You're not taking into account that that is always true. That has always been true every day that the human species has existed. It's always been true that we could be hit by a comet and all die. In fact, just recently, the probability of that has gone down drastically because we've finally turned our attention as a species to the problem of diverting comets and asteroids. But if they're big enough, we still can't do it. But still, the probability of it has gone down. And people used to worry about things like the oxygen will run out of the air because we're consuming oxygen and where's it going to come from? And people have worried about things that aren't even a rational fear like the apocalypse or the world is going to end on such-and-such a day and we'll all be judged, wanting, and so on. So yeah, at the moment, I think it's the AI thing and the climate catastrophe thing. It's not that those fears couldn't come true. It's that when you see them in perspective, you see that it's an arbitrary choice to pick those things. In a slightly different universe, we're still worrying about something else, or we're worrying about whatever the next thing is, which we can't predict yet. Matthew Feeney You hold, I would imagine, a rather unpopular opinion in the modern world, which is that AGIs aren't going to pose much greater risk than humans already are. What's your perspective at the moment on this AGI thing? I mentioned to you earlier on this Jacob Coxon guy who was at OpenAI, I think, for about three years, and he was at Anthropic recently, and he tweeted yesterday, I resigned from Anthropic today. I spent the last three years doing pre-training research at both OpenAI and Anthropic. Neither company is acting responsibly. They are racing towards self-improving superintelligence and gambling with our lives. Some other safety researcher from Anthropic said there's a more than 10% chance that advanced AI could kill all humans within the next decade. Models have a lower risk at the moment, but future systems could become more capable, etc., etc. How do you come to think about this conversation, given your background in quantum computing, etc.? I think it's not a justified fear, as I've just said, for reasons I've just said. I'm old, and I remember when people were saying this about nuclear reactors. They said it so loudly and so often that people stopped making nuclear reactors, thereby causing the present climate problem. From my point of view, they picked at random one of the many bad things that could happen, but we don't know whether they will or won't, but there's no particular reason to think that they will, even though they could. They picked that one at random, and they alarmed everybody. People took drastic action to avoid that alarm, with catastrophic results. The worst effect on the environment that our species has ever had was the turn away from nuclear power. If we turn away from artificial intelligence because of a similar fiction, I think I was a bit tempted to say something dramatic. I think it would be a big catastrophe, but not as big. Tell me if this sounds familiar. You train regularly. You eat reasonably well. You feel fine, but you're just kind of going off vibes. Most people have absolutely no idea what's going on inside their body. 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I spent a good bit of time over the last few months in SF and talking to people on every side of the fence, including with the fence up inside of them as well, straddling both sides. Certainly, at least a relatively uncontroversial opinion seems to be LLMs are not the architecture that can get us to something that is very scary, that is going to be able to take over the world. Is that something that you would agree with? Absolutely. I think that follows directly from Popper's epistemology because the LLMs do not have a module in them capable of creativity. They can do remarkable things, and a few years ago, I wouldn't have guessed that this kind of functionality is on the horizon for another 50 years. Yet, it came all at once and everything worked one after the other. The people who did it think that AGI is going to work as well for the same reason. The present LLM-based AIs, not only have they not shown any sign of AGI, but we know how they work, or at least some people know how they work. I don't, but we do know that the people who designed them did not say, now we know what creativity really is. Now we can program it, and all we need is some supercomputers. They didn't say that. They said, now we can build a language model which will be able to speak English properly. I would be like, good luck with that, and they did. It's one thing to achieve functionality that makes sense epistemologically and to achieve it much faster than was thought, and it's another to achieve a functionality that violates our best theory of what knowledge is. That's another thing. People who think that LLMs are going to deliver AGI don't say, for example, well, Popper had only an approximation to the true theory of knowledge. He didn't realize that there's a gap in his theory, and this gap we have filled. We know how to fill that gap, and so if you just use his old theory, you'll say that AGI is impossible this way, but if you know what we know, then you'll see why it's possible. They're not claiming that. They're saying it'll just happen if they have more computer power available. A previous kind of slight blip of the same type was when chess engines first started defeating the best grandmasters at chess. Some people were saying, no, they'll never do it because humans have got some special thing in their brains, and other people were saying, no, it's just a matter of doing it with more computer power, but that's different because they had a theory of why it just requires more computer power. When they achieved it, this is the thing that's hardly ever mentioned. When a chess engine beats a grandmaster, they're doing it in a different way. The computation that is going on in the chess engine is a radically different kind of computation from the computation that's going on in the grandmaster. The grandmaster is doing only like one millionth of the amount of computing power of computation than the chess engine does, and yet can reach a very high level, not quite as high as the machine, as the program. But still, they are doing a completely different thing. Although we know how to write the program of a chess engine, we do not know how to write the program of a grandmaster. This is why grandmasters can write a book, you know, My Greatest Games and How I Won Them, or something like that, and a chess engine can't. If you ask a chess engine how it won, it will say, well, if you do this move, then that will happen, and if that happens, this will happen. If that happens, this will happen, down to however many steps it can do nowadays. A grandmaster will not say that. A grandmaster can't follow it down to anywhere near as many steps as a chess engine can, but a grandmaster will say something like, well, I thought that if I give up this pawn, it's going to create a weakness on the G file. And by weakness, he doesn't mean that he's followed down all the possible continuations, whereas something that can follow down all the continuations, and by the way, some of those continuations may not lead to victory. He might say, I thought this might work, but then five moves later, the bastard found a way out of it, and that can also happen. That also can't happen to a chess engine. So there are different types of programs. We do not know how to write the grandmaster type of chess program, let alone an AGI. When the grandmaster gets up, he then starts performing computations of orders of magnitude greater complexity than playing chess. It's just that he's not engaging competitively in something that requires insight. What is creativity, in your opinion? How do you think about explaining that simply? And the way I use the term is perhaps different from the way philosophers and others use it. Creativity, I think, is not that impressive a thing, just creativity by itself. I use that word to mean the ability to create new knowledge. So evolution is a creative process in that sense, in that it starts off with an animal that can't fly, and then a few million years later, it has created an animal that can fly. It can fly because its genes encode knowledge of how to fly, including implicitly knowledge of aerodynamics. and all sorts of things that we don't even have a handle on yet, so it has created knowledge. The thing that humans have and that no existing other species has, although there were species in the past that had this, is explanatory creativity, like with the chess master. Not only we can say, I prefer this move to that move, you can say why. So I want to pick up this burning branch from the wildfire, like say the first person who invented a campfire. I want to pick this up because I want to carry it with me, and if I carry it with me, maybe the predators who might otherwise attack me, and I'm carrying food from the latest kill, will run away from me instead of me running away from them. Now that idea, that's not induction, that's not any of the pre-popper ways of thinking of the growth of knowledge, he's not doing something he's seen before, he's imagining something that he's never seen before, that no one has ever seen before, namely carrying a branch for protection against predators. And then as he walks home with it, then he'll say, oh well, it's getting dark, but I can still see. Maybe if I get this all the way home, we'll all be able to be protected from the wild animals and so on. That's the kind of thinking that cannot be characterized as optimizing for a given outcome, like checkmate, or like proving a mathematical theorem. It's more like discovering a new mathematical object which is interesting, but you can't give a computer a criterion of interesting. So humans can change the axioms to better axioms, and humans are not just meeting a fixed criterion, and also humans can change their mind. He might decide, well, we might scare off the predators this way, but we're getting burnt by the flames, and it's not going to last us all the way home, so we better throw it away now and run home. That's the sort of thing you can think if you have a genuine problem situation in mind rather than a criterion to meet. What do you make, given the importance of understanding education, modesty, or sort of nobility, humility when it comes to learning, what do you make of the current education system? So I think that our society's present attitude to education, both for children and in universities and for everybody in their own life, is based on a wrong theory. It's what Popper calls the bucket theory of the mind, which is that knowledge is a kind of fluid, which some people have and some people don't have of a particular kind, and the task is for the person who has it to pour it into the bucket, that is, the recipient is a kind of bucket for knowledge, which is initially empty, and you pour the knowledge in. So that is very bad in a number of ways. In fact, education is the last holdout of pre-Enlightenment theories of knowledge. Everywhere else, we at least give lip service to Enlightenment theories, like you don't give someone authority to override the wishes of someone else, you don't necessarily respect the opinion of someone else just because of their status, and so on. We may not enact this perfectly, as we were saying earlier in this conversation, but it's largely agreed that this is what we should be doing. In education, it's the other way around. We judge education by how well and how accurately you fill the bucket, and so one of the things that's wrong with that is that when something goes wrong, which it nearly always does, then you will immediately jump to the conclusion, so what has gone wrong? The bucket is either leaky or it didn't want to receive the fluid, but there can't be anything wrong with the fluid because the fluid is knowledge. That is by definition what we want to transfer. By definition, transferring it is success, so we measure success according to exam results or something, and then because of the natural arms race or the self-sustaining situation that happens in many human situations that aren't rational, the incentive is to spend more and more time on meeting the criterion and less and less time on things that can't be measured, which are the important things. At least with chess, you can measure how good a grandmaster is, although you cannot easily measure how good a grandmaster is at explaining or at teaching or at giving a running commentary on chess games. There is no criterion for that. There's no mechanical way you can say, well, I've got 93% on explaining my moves test, so I must be good at explaining my moves. There is no such thing, and everything that is important in education is of that type and not of the testable type. I omit things where being able to execute the criterion perfectly is the task, like being an airline pilot, but even an airline pilot who doesn't know what the different controls do is not going to be a good airline pilot. But even with an airline pilot, understanding is extremely important. It may not be as important as being able to operate the controls, but it is extremely important. But things that we learn in school and in most university courses are not like that. The course and the exam are designed as proxies for the thing that you actually want. And they are very poor proxies. The only reason they are proxies at all is that people who really want to do the thing are willing to waste their time learning to pass the criterion. Before we continue, how many times have you found yourself hugging the toilet, throwing up, not because you drank too much alcohol, but because the non-alcoholic beers that you drank tasted like garbage? 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Should people exit formal education as quickly as possible? We presumably can't append the entire system right now immediately. What's your advice? Appending is outside my wheelhouse. You know, I don't know how to formulate good political policies that will gain wide acceptance, but technically, with the internet, we do have the means of completely upending the system and not having any compulsory education, certainly for children. But I think there are more and more ways of adapting university education to technologies like the internet and also collaborative technologies where you have, for example, access to somebody. Access to somebody can be very valuable where compulsory subordination to that very same person would be very bad for you. So today, anyone can write an email to any famous person and have a reasonable chance of getting an answer, even if it's only, read my book, you dolt. But even that is a lot better than what things used to be like, say, even 30 years ago. But even 30 years ago, it would have been better, in my opinion, not to have compulsory subjects and not to have compulsory education of any kind. What do you think about discipline and forcing yourself to do things? I've seen that you appear to be very anti this, despite it being kind of one of the most popular worldviews at the moment to put your feelings to one side and push through and sort of ignore how you feel. What's your perspective on discipline? Like many things in epistemology and in psychology, the same words, the same terms can be used to describe absolutely opposite things. So, for example, take a mountaineer who enjoys climbing Mount Everest or difficult mountains, who looks for difficult climb where other people have failed, perhaps other people have been killed. And he goes on the climb, and on the climb, he undergoes severe privation and what would be suffering to almost anyone else. But to him, it's just privation. It's getting cold. Every fiber of his being wants to go back down and get back in the warm. But he wants to get to the top. And all the pain and suffering and discomfort, it's not that he overrides it, though in a sense he does. But what's really happening is that that's what he's there for. That's why he chose this climb. If it were easy, he wouldn't have chosen it. So, what is, for one person, this is the reason he's alive, this is the reason he gets up in the morning, it is in anticipation of doing this thing. For almost anyone else, it would be torture. What's more, almost anyone else couldn't do it well enough. They would eventually fall off. It's only because he loves it that he has put in the amount of practice and work and thinking and analysis and so on that allows him to reach the top of this difficult climb. In the case of mountaineering, we're talking about actual pain and so on, but most things don't have actual pain, physical pain, but they do have psychological pain, boredom, despair, fear, and all that kind of thing. So, in that sense, I think the mountaineer is a good analogy to all learning. All learning should be like that. It should be something that you would pay the price to have it, just like the mountaineer does, or like I was talking the other day to a Formula One driver, and I was saying, God, in Formula One racing, you have to have reactions that are approximately one-half the length of a human reaction time. So, that means that you must start doing the thing before you have the information in front of you, because you have understood the course and the vehicle and so on well enough, and you must do that again and again and again during the race. And every so often, you will spin off, and you will risk your life and so on. And so, most people, again, would hate to do that. You know, most people would pay a lot to not have to do that, but also, if they were forced to do it, they wouldn't do it well, because they do not love it. So, I think having discipline and forcing yourself could be a form of words that describes this mountaineer, and in that case, it is wonderful. It is, in a sense, the best thing in the world, whereas somebody forcing themselves to get a GCSE maths thing and spending the whole summer preparing for the for the gcse maths and just scraping through and then starting the very next day forgetting everything they knew that is the epitome of something bad. That's something that shouldn't happen. It's it's in a in a rational society that would never happen that would be if that happened even once it would be headline in the newspaper and heads would roll so from an individual's perspective. Obviously we are still contending with and navigating the world and it is in some ways scarce or misaligned what it is that we want to do so sometimes you have to do that you have to use your i will get it done muscle. You don't take that you don't take the trash out the trash sucks and it smells and you don't do it but you have to do it so you gonna do it your perspective here is that if we were to construct a rational society. It would be people doing things that are in alignment with what they want to do and in the interim between where we are now and hopefully a future world where that's the case. You gonna have to apply some of this but the goal is to use less and less of it over time. Less and less that's a lesson is over time but also less and less in your life so so first of all. The answer is to get it get it over with. So you should be leading your your good life not not. Not being overwhelmed by the bad things and then once you once you're getting it over with you you can improve the situation there are no situations or almost no situations in everyday life that cannot be improved a little. So you can apply knowledge to getting it over with a little you know i don't know by by a better. Rubbish bin which is not so disgusting to empty or. I'm living in a place where the rubbish bin emptying is easier is a shorter way or by a different type of bags that you enjoy seeing briefly as you take it to the. Exactly exactly so. And then there's there's also the opportunity to just learn to enjoy it so that even taking the rubbish out has aspects that one can enjoy you for example if one has been. Working on the computer all day and and ones ones limbs are forgotten how to move then at least going out with the rubbish takes you into the fresh air. And and you can see the neighborhood and you can say hello to the person across the road who is also taking out their rubbish and so on so that there's nothing that. That can't be improved at least a bit and and it's bad to be in the state of mind that i should have discipline and therefore reducing it. Is reducing the good thing it's not reducing the thing you don't like is always good. You mentioned that the good life what have you come to believe about how people should prioritize. The focus in order to achieve something that resembles a good life. Like with many things diversity is the key so i don't think there's a formula which applies to to everybody in fact i don't think there's a formula that applies to any two people. Any two people are very different in fact more different than we are really capable of understanding humans are individual humans are as different from each other. As humans in general are from other species. It's a person is like a different species so what what some people like to live a life of. Intellectual problem solving there is a wonderful passage in poppers autobiography where he says that the thing to do. In life is to find a problem fall in love with it live with it for the rest of your life get get married to it live with it for the rest of your life until death do you part and if you happen to solve it. The tone in which he says that is your unlucky enough to happen to solve it then there will be delightful problem children. And it's quite interesting that he uses the phrase problem children deliberately. To highlight the fact that problem in his philosophy has these two opposite meanings so we can say. I'm your problem children is is a term a sort of euphemism that was invented for children that you would not want to live with. Was he is using it for something that you really ought to live with and and a lot of. People who are the survivors of doing unusual things and then advocate the people should do these unusual things they often gloss over the difference between good discipline and bad discipline good problem and bad problem and they will say things that. Are exactly right for them because they were following the good path if i can put it that way but it's often taken to mean that you have to knuckle down and do your chores and then your homework and then go to bed. And that's the which is the opposite of what you should be doing. Even though it can be described in the same words. Yeah i am does this line from john steinbeck just pretty fun he says i wonder why progress looks so much like destruction. And when doing a little bit of thinking about. My golden retriever translation of your world view on mass civilization across time individually you know existentially it kind of i think that's that's probably that's not a bad. Summation i wonder why progress looks so much like destruction or you can say feel so much like destruction or is accused of being so much of destruction. Yes the last one is perhaps the best what it feels it could feel either way that's the trouble and you can't really tell from the outside necessarily because people can force themselves as well as being forced by other people and they can be pursuing a very hard path. Which they want to pursue which is joyful to them without that being noticeable either the only time that that's noticeable. The only times that's noticeable is when the thing that pursuing happens to have a good reputation. Like like if somebody spends ten hours a day practicing chess. Or or practicing some martial art or whatever it is people will see what they're doing that day they are they are. Adopting the discipline and making themselves power through to to being good at this thing which which society things is a good thing but a very similar thing like a video game which is. Almost the same thing psychologically but which is socially frowned on people will say that's. Not a good thing to be devoting yourself to they will be blind to the effort and creativity that's going into it and they will instead try to apply discipline the opposite direction. I've learned from over a thousand podcast episodes the easier that you make a health routine the more consistent you'll be like golf. 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So that's one thing another thing is i'm writing the third book in my sort of sequel to my first two books. Fabric a reality in beginning infinity i'm writing another one. Very difficult i think i think it's an example of mountaineering rather than. I'm being forced but yeah but it's. Tentatively called irrationality though i don't quite like the title because it gives the wrong impression at least at first. The subtitle at the moment is. How thinking works and what the obstacles to it. So that's i think a better title but it's a bit clunky. And what's doing textbook plus difficult third album to previously quite complex. Initial two bucks you also got the fiction book put together as well. Yes i have also got my day job so apart from those three yes. No at least you keeping yourself busy david deutsch ladies and gentlemen david you're awesome i appreciate you it's very nice to hear a fellow accent as well. What should people be looking out for over the next couple of months when is this something gonna drop before the end of the year one of the books one of the fiction. What do we know that's gonna come up i think that's unlikely in the next couple of months but in the next year fingers crossed yes. One of one of them may drop beautiful david i appreciate you very much thank you. Thank you having me. Very pleasant.