Essentials: The Neuroscience of Speech, Language & Music | Dr. Erich Jarvis

Welcome to Huberman Lab Essentials, Welcome to Huberman Lab Essentials, where we revisit past episodes for the where we revisit past episodes for the where we revisit past episodes for the most potent and actionable science-based most potent and actionable science-based most potent and actionable science-based tools for mental health, physical tools for mental health, physical tools for mental health, physical health, and performance. health, and performance. health, and performance. I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor I'm Andrew Huberman, and I'm a professor of neurobiology and opthalmology at of neurobiology and opthalmology at of neurobiology and opthalmology at Stamford School of Medicine. And now for Stamford School of Medicine. And now for Stamford School of Medicine. And now for my discussion with Dr. Eric Jarvis. my discussion with Dr. Eric Jarvis. my discussion with Dr. Eric Jarvis. Eric, so great to have you here. Eric, so great to have you here. Eric, so great to have you here. >> Thank you. Yeah, very interested in >> Thank you. Yeah, very interested in >> Thank you. Yeah, very interested in learning from you about speech and learning from you about speech and learning from you about speech and language in terms of the study of speech language in terms of the study of speech language in terms of the study of speech and language and thinking about how the and language and thinking about how the and language and thinking about how the brain organizes speech and language. Uh brain organizes speech and language. Uh brain organizes speech and language. Uh what are the similarities? What are the what are the similarities? What are the what are the similarities? What are the differences? How should we think about differences? How should we think about differences? How should we think about speech and language? speech and language? speech and language? >> There really isn't such a sharp >> There really isn't such a sharp >> There really isn't such a sharp distinction. Now let me tell you how distinction. Now let me tell you how distinction. Now let me tell you how some people think of it now that there's some people think of it now that there's some people think of it now that there's a separate language module in the brain a separate language module in the brain a separate language module in the brain that has all the algorithms and that has all the algorithms and that has all the algorithms and computations that influence the speech computations that influence the speech computations that influence the speech pathway on how to produce sound and the pathway on how to produce sound and the pathway on how to produce sound and the auditory pathway on how to perceive and auditory pathway on how to perceive and auditory pathway on how to perceive and interpret it uh for speech or for you interpret it uh for speech or for you interpret it uh for speech or for you know sound that we call speech. I don't know sound that we call speech. I don't know sound that we call speech. I don't think there is any good evidence for a think there is any good evidence for a think there is any good evidence for a separate language module. Instead, separate language module. Instead, separate language module. Instead, there is a speech production pathway there is a speech production pathway there is a speech production pathway that's controlling our larynx, that's controlling our larynx, that's controlling our larynx, controlling our jaw muscles that has controlling our jaw muscles that has controlling our jaw muscles that has built within it all the complex built within it all the complex built within it all the complex algorithms for spoken language. And algorithms for spoken language. And algorithms for spoken language. And there's the auditory pathway that has there's the auditory pathway that has there's the auditory pathway that has built within it all the complex built within it all the complex built within it all the complex algorithms for understanding speech, not algorithms for understanding speech, not algorithms for understanding speech, not separate from a language module. And separate from a language module. And separate from a language module. And this speech production pathway is this speech production pathway is this speech production pathway is specialized to humans and parrots and specialized to humans and parrots and specialized to humans and parrots and songirds. Whereas this auditory songirds. Whereas this auditory songirds. Whereas this auditory perception pathway is more ubiquitous perception pathway is more ubiquitous perception pathway is more ubiquitous amongst the animal kingdom. And this is amongst the animal kingdom. And this is amongst the animal kingdom. And this is why dogs can understand sit ce why dogs can understand sit ce why dogs can understand sit ce boy get the ball and so forth. Dogs can boy get the ball and so forth. Dogs can boy get the ball and so forth. Dogs can understand several hundred human speech understand several hundred human speech understand several hundred human speech words. Great apes you can teach them for words. Great apes you can teach them for words. Great apes you can teach them for several thousand but they can't say a several thousand but they can't say a several thousand but they can't say a word. What do we understand about modes word. What do we understand about modes word. What do we understand about modes of communication that are like language of communication that are like language of communication that are like language but might not be what would classically but might not be what would classically but might not be what would classically be called language? be called language? be called language? >> Right? So next to the brain regions that >> Right? So next to the brain regions that >> Right? So next to the brain regions that are controlling spoken language are the are controlling spoken language are the are controlling spoken language are the brain regions for gesturing with the brain regions for gesturing with the brain regions for gesturing with the hands. And that hand parallel pathway hands. And that hand parallel pathway hands. And that hand parallel pathway has also complex algorithms that we can has also complex algorithms that we can has also complex algorithms that we can utilize. And some species are more utilize. And some species are more utilize. And some species are more advanced in these circuits, whether it's advanced in these circuits, whether it's advanced in these circuits, whether it's sound or gesturing with hands, and some sound or gesturing with hands, and some sound or gesturing with hands, and some are less advanced. Humans are the most are less advanced. Humans are the most are less advanced. Humans are the most advanced at spoken language, but not advanced at spoken language, but not advanced at spoken language, but not necessarily as big a difference at necessarily as big a difference at necessarily as big a difference at gestural language compared to some other gestural language compared to some other gestural language compared to some other species. So, as you and I are talking species. So, as you and I are talking species. So, as you and I are talking here today, and people who are listening here today, and people who are listening here today, and people who are listening but can't see us, we're actually but can't see us, we're actually but can't see us, we're actually gesturing with our hands as we talk uh gesturing with our hands as we talk uh gesturing with our hands as we talk uh without knowing it. We're doing it without knowing it. We're doing it without knowing it. We're doing it unconsciously and if we were talking on unconsciously and if we were talking on unconsciously and if we were talking on a telephone, I would have one hand here a telephone, I would have one hand here a telephone, I would have one hand here and I would be gesturing with the other and I would be gesturing with the other and I would be gesturing with the other hand without even you seeing me, right? hand without even you seeing me, right? hand without even you seeing me, right? And so why is that? Some have argued and And so why is that? Some have argued and And so why is that? Some have argued and I would agree with based upon what we've I would agree with based upon what we've I would agree with based upon what we've seen is that there is an evolutionary seen is that there is an evolutionary seen is that there is an evolutionary relationship between the brain pathways relationship between the brain pathways relationship between the brain pathways that control speech production and that control speech production and that control speech production and gesturing. Uh and and the brain regions gesturing. Uh and and the brain regions gesturing. Uh and and the brain regions I mentioned are directly adjacent to I mentioned are directly adjacent to I mentioned are directly adjacent to each other. And why is that? I think each other. And why is that? I think each other. And why is that? I think that the brain pathways that control that the brain pathways that control that the brain pathways that control speech evolved out of the brain pathways speech evolved out of the brain pathways speech evolved out of the brain pathways that control body movement. All right? that control body movement. All right? that control body movement. All right? And um that uh when you talk about And um that uh when you talk about And um that uh when you talk about Italian, French, English, and so forth, Italian, French, English, and so forth, Italian, French, English, and so forth, um each one of those languages come with um each one of those languages come with um each one of those languages come with a learned set of gestures a learned set of gestures a learned set of gestures that you can communicate with. Now, how that you can communicate with. Now, how that you can communicate with. Now, how is that related to other animals? Well, is that related to other animals? Well, is that related to other animals? Well, Koko, a gorilla who is raised with Koko, a gorilla who is raised with Koko, a gorilla who is raised with humans for 39 years or more, uh, learned humans for 39 years or more, uh, learned humans for 39 years or more, uh, learned how to do gesture communication, learned how to do gesture communication, learned how to do gesture communication, learned how to sign language, so to speak, how to sign language, so to speak, how to sign language, so to speak, right? But Koko couldn't produce those right? But Koko couldn't produce those right? But Koko couldn't produce those sounds. Koko could understand them as sounds. Koko could understand them as sounds. Koko could understand them as well well well by s by seeing somebody sign or hearing by s by seeing somebody sign or hearing by s by seeing somebody sign or hearing somebody produce speech, but Koko somebody produce speech, but Koko somebody produce speech, but Koko couldn't produce it with her voice. And couldn't produce it with her voice. And couldn't produce it with her voice. And so what's going on there is that a so what's going on there is that a so what's going on there is that a number of species, not all of them, a number of species, not all of them, a number of species, not all of them, a number of species have motor pathways in number of species have motor pathways in number of species have motor pathways in the brain where you can do learn the brain where you can do learn the brain where you can do learn gesturing, rudimentary language if you gesturing, rudimentary language if you gesturing, rudimentary language if you wanted, say, with your lens, even if wanted, say, with your lens, even if wanted, say, with your lens, even if it's not as advanced as humans, but they it's not as advanced as humans, but they it's not as advanced as humans, but they don't have this extra brain pathway for don't have this extra brain pathway for don't have this extra brain pathway for the sound. So they can't gesture with the sound. So they can't gesture with the sound. So they can't gesture with their voice in the way that they gesture their voice in the way that they gesture their voice in the way that they gesture with their hands. One thing that I've with their hands. One thing that I've with their hands. One thing that I've wondered about for a very long time is wondered about for a very long time is wondered about for a very long time is whether or not um primitive emotions whether or not um primitive emotions whether or not um primitive emotions and primitive sounds are the early and primitive sounds are the early and primitive sounds are the early substrate of language. When I smell substrate of language. When I smell substrate of language. When I smell something delicious, I typically inhale something delicious, I typically inhale something delicious, I typically inhale more and I might say or something like more and I might say or something like more and I might say or something like that. Whereas if I smell something that. Whereas if I smell something that. Whereas if I smell something putrid, I typically turn away. I wse and putrid, I typically turn away. I wse and putrid, I typically turn away. I wse and I will exhale trying to not ingest those I will exhale trying to not ingest those I will exhale trying to not ingest those molecules or inhale those molecules. I molecules or inhale those molecules. I molecules or inhale those molecules. I could imagine that these are the basic could imagine that these are the basic could imagine that these are the basic dark and light contrasts of the language dark and light contrasts of the language dark and light contrasts of the language system. This kind of primitive to more system. This kind of primitive to more system. This kind of primitive to more sophisticated sophisticated sophisticated um pyramid of of sound to language. Is um pyramid of of sound to language. Is um pyramid of of sound to language. Is this a crazy idea? Do we have any uh do this a crazy idea? Do we have any uh do this a crazy idea? Do we have any uh do we have any evidence this is the way it we have any evidence this is the way it we have any evidence this is the way it works? works? works? >> No, it's not a crazy idea. And in fact, >> No, it's not a crazy idea. And in fact, >> No, it's not a crazy idea. And in fact, you hit upon one of the key distinctions you hit upon one of the key distinctions you hit upon one of the key distinctions in the field of research that I started in the field of research that I started in the field of research that I started out in, which is vocal learning out in, which is vocal learning out in, which is vocal learning research. Most vertebrate species research. Most vertebrate species research. Most vertebrate species vocalize, but most of them are producing vocalize, but most of them are producing vocalize, but most of them are producing innate sounds that they're born with. Uh innate sounds that they're born with. Uh innate sounds that they're born with. Uh that is babies crying, for example, or that is babies crying, for example, or that is babies crying, for example, or dogs barking. And only a few species dogs barking. And only a few species dogs barking. And only a few species have learned vocal communication, the have learned vocal communication, the have learned vocal communication, the ability to imitate sounds. And that is ability to imitate sounds. And that is ability to imitate sounds. And that is what makes spoken language special. When what makes spoken language special. When what makes spoken language special. When people think of what's special about people think of what's special about people think of what's special about language, it's the learned language, it's the learned language, it's the learned vocalizations. That is what's rare. So vocalizations. That is what's rare. So vocalizations. That is what's rare. So all the things you talked about, the all the things you talked about, the all the things you talked about, the breathing, the grunting and so forth, a breathing, the grunting and so forth, a breathing, the grunting and so forth, a lot of that is handled by the brain stem lot of that is handled by the brain stem lot of that is handled by the brain stem circuits, you know, right around the circuits, you know, right around the circuits, you know, right around the level of your neck and below uh like a level of your neck and below uh like a level of your neck and below uh like a reflex kind of thing. So or or even some reflex kind of thing. So or or even some reflex kind of thing. So or or even some emotional aspects of your behavior in emotional aspects of your behavior in emotional aspects of your behavior in the hypothalamus and so forth. But for a the hypothalamus and so forth. But for a the hypothalamus and so forth. But for a learned behavior, learning how to speak, learned behavior, learning how to speak, learned behavior, learning how to speak, uh, learning how to play the piano, uh, learning how to play the piano, uh, learning how to play the piano, teaching a dog to learn how to do tricks teaching a dog to learn how to do tricks teaching a dog to learn how to do tricks is using the forebrain circuits. And is using the forebrain circuits. And is using the forebrain circuits. And what has happened is that there's a lot what has happened is that there's a lot what has happened is that there's a lot of forebrain circuits that are of forebrain circuits that are of forebrain circuits that are controlling learning how to move body controlling learning how to move body controlling learning how to move body parts in these species, but not for the parts in these species, but not for the parts in these species, but not for the vocalizations. But in humans and in vocalizations. But in humans and in vocalizations. But in humans and in parrots and some other species somehow parrots and some other species somehow parrots and some other species somehow we acquired circuits where the forebrain we acquired circuits where the forebrain we acquired circuits where the forebrain has taken over the brain stem and now has taken over the brain stem and now has taken over the brain stem and now using that brain stem not only to using that brain stem not only to using that brain stem not only to produce the innate behaviors or vocal produce the innate behaviors or vocal produce the innate behaviors or vocal behaviors but the learned ones as well. behaviors but the learned ones as well. behaviors but the learned ones as well. >> Do we have any sense of when modern or >> Do we have any sense of when modern or >> Do we have any sense of when modern or sophisticated language evolved sophisticated language evolved sophisticated language evolved >> amongst the primates which we humans >> amongst the primates which we humans >> amongst the primates which we humans belong to? we are the only ones that belong to? we are the only ones that belong to? we are the only ones that have this advanced vocal learning have this advanced vocal learning have this advanced vocal learning ability. Uh now when you it was assumed ability. Uh now when you it was assumed ability. Uh now when you it was assumed that it was only homo sapiens. Uh then that it was only homo sapiens. Uh then that it was only homo sapiens. Uh then you can go back in time now based upon you can go back in time now based upon you can go back in time now based upon genomic data not only of us living genomic data not only of us living genomic data not only of us living humans but of the fossils that have been humans but of the fossils that have been humans but of the fossils that have been found for homo sapiens of Neanderthalss found for homo sapiens of Neanderthalss found for homo sapiens of Neanderthalss of Dennisovven uh individuals and of Dennisovven uh individuals and of Dennisovven uh individuals and discover that our ancestor our human discover that our ancestor our human discover that our ancestor our human ancestors ancestors ancestors supposedly hybridize with these other supposedly hybridize with these other supposedly hybridize with these other homminid species. homminid species. homminid species. And it was assumed that these other And it was assumed that these other And it was assumed that these other homminid species don't learn how to homminid species don't learn how to homminid species don't learn how to imitate sounds. imitate sounds. imitate sounds. I don't know of any species today that's I don't know of any species today that's I don't know of any species today that's a vocal learner that can have children a vocal learner that can have children a vocal learner that can have children with a non-vocal learning species. I I with a non-vocal learning species. I I with a non-vocal learning species. I I don't see it. It doesn't mean it didn't don't see it. It doesn't mean it didn't don't see it. It doesn't mean it didn't exist. uh and when we look at the exist. uh and when we look at the exist. uh and when we look at the genetic data from these ancestral genetic data from these ancestral genetic data from these ancestral homminids that uh you know where we can homminids that uh you know where we can homminids that uh you know where we can look at genes that are involved in learn look at genes that are involved in learn look at genes that are involved in learn vocal communication they have the same vocal communication they have the same vocal communication they have the same sequence as we humans do for genes that sequence as we humans do for genes that sequence as we humans do for genes that function in speech circuits. So I think function in speech circuits. So I think function in speech circuits. So I think Neanderthalss had spoken language. I'm Neanderthalss had spoken language. I'm Neanderthalss had spoken language. I'm not going to say it's as advanced as not going to say it's as advanced as not going to say it's as advanced as what it is in humans. I don't know. Um what it is in humans. I don't know. Um what it is in humans. I don't know. Um but I think it's been there for at least but I think it's been there for at least but I think it's been there for at least between 500,000 to a million years. between 500,000 to a million years. between 500,000 to a million years. Maybe we could talk a little bit more Maybe we could talk a little bit more Maybe we could talk a little bit more about the overlap between brain circuits about the overlap between brain circuits about the overlap between brain circuits that control language and speech in that control language and speech in that control language and speech in humans and other animals. You know, I humans and other animals. You know, I humans and other animals. You know, I was weaned in the neuroscience era where was weaned in the neuroscience era where was weaned in the neuroscience era where bird song and the uh the ability of bird song and the uh the ability of bird song and the uh the ability of birds to learn their tutor song was and birds to learn their tutor song was and birds to learn their tutor song was and still is a prominent field um sub field still is a prominent field um sub field still is a prominent field um sub field of neuroscience. And this notion of a of neuroscience. And this notion of a of neuroscience. And this notion of a critical period, a time in which critical period, a time in which critical period, a time in which language is learned more easily than it language is learned more easily than it language is learned more easily than it is later in life. And the names of the is later in life. And the names of the is later in life. And the names of the different brain areas were quite different brain areas were quite different brain areas were quite different. Um it one opens the textbooks different. Um it one opens the textbooks different. Um it one opens the textbooks we hear vernicks and brocas for the we hear vernicks and brocas for the we hear vernicks and brocas for the humans and you look at the bird stuff. I humans and you look at the bird stuff. I humans and you look at the bird stuff. I remember you know remember you know remember you know >> HBC a robust arch striatum area X right >> HBC a robust arch striatum area X right >> HBC a robust arch striatum area X right that's right. Uh how similar or that's right. Uh how similar or that's right. Uh how similar or different are the brains brain areas different are the brains brain areas different are the brains brain areas controlling speech and language in say a controlling speech and language in say a controlling speech and language in say a song bird and a and a young ch human song bird and a and a young ch human song bird and a and a young ch human child. child. child. >> Yeah. So going back to the 1950s or and >> Yeah. So going back to the 1950s or and >> Yeah. So going back to the 1950s or and even a little earlier and Peter Mer and even a little earlier and Peter Mer and even a little earlier and Peter Mer and others who got involved in others who got involved in others who got involved in neuroethology, the study of neurobiology neuroethology, the study of neurobiology neuroethology, the study of neurobiology of behavior in a natural way, right? Um of behavior in a natural way, right? Um of behavior in a natural way, right? Um you know they start to find that you know they start to find that you know they start to find that behaviorally there are these species of behaviorally there are these species of behaviorally there are these species of birds like song birds and parrots and birds like song birds and parrots and birds like song birds and parrots and now we also know hummingbirds just three now we also know hummingbirds just three now we also know hummingbirds just three of them out of the 40some bird groups of them out of the 40some bird groups of them out of the 40some bird groups out there on the planet orders that they out there on the planet orders that they out there on the planet orders that they can imitate sounds like we do. And so can imitate sounds like we do. And so can imitate sounds like we do. And so that was the similarity. In other words, that was the similarity. In other words, that was the similarity. In other words, they had this kind of behavior that's they had this kind of behavior that's they had this kind of behavior that's more similar to us than chimpanzees have more similar to us than chimpanzees have more similar to us than chimpanzees have with us or than chickens have with them, with us or than chickens have with them, with us or than chickens have with them, right? They're closer relatives. And right? They're closer relatives. And right? They're closer relatives. And then they discovered even more then they discovered even more then they discovered even more similarities, these critical periods similarities, these critical periods similarities, these critical periods that if you remove a child and you know that if you remove a child and you know that if you remove a child and you know this unfortunately happens where a child this unfortunately happens where a child this unfortunately happens where a child is feral and is not raised with human is feral and is not raised with human is feral and is not raised with human and goes through their puberty phase of and goes through their puberty phase of and goes through their puberty phase of growth, becomes hard for them to learn a growth, becomes hard for them to learn a growth, becomes hard for them to learn a language as an adult. So there's this language as an adult. So there's this language as an adult. So there's this critical period where you learn best and critical period where you learn best and critical period where you learn best and even later on when you're in regular even later on when you're in regular even later on when you're in regular society it's hard to learn. Well the society it's hard to learn. Well the society it's hard to learn. Well the birds undergo the same thing and then it birds undergo the same thing and then it birds undergo the same thing and then it was discovered that if they become deaf was discovered that if they become deaf was discovered that if they become deaf we humans become deaf our speech starts we humans become deaf our speech starts we humans become deaf our speech starts to deteriorate without any kind of to deteriorate without any kind of to deteriorate without any kind of therapy. Uh if a non-human primate or um therapy. Uh if a non-human primate or um therapy. Uh if a non-human primate or um you know or let's say a chicken becomes you know or let's say a chicken becomes you know or let's say a chicken becomes deaf uh their vocalizations don't deaf uh their vocalizations don't deaf uh their vocalizations don't deteriorate very little at least. uh deteriorate very little at least. uh deteriorate very little at least. uh well this happens in the vocal learning well this happens in the vocal learning well this happens in the vocal learning birds. So there were all these birds. So there were all these birds. So there were all these behavioral parallels that came along behavioral parallels that came along behavioral parallels that came along with a package and then people looked with a package and then people looked with a package and then people looked into the brain Fernando Nataba my former into the brain Fernando Nataba my former into the brain Fernando Nataba my former PhD adviser and began to discover the PhD adviser and began to discover the PhD adviser and began to discover the area X you talked about uh the robust area X you talked about uh the robust area X you talked about uh the robust nucleus of the archopelium nucleus of the archopelium nucleus of the archopelium and um and these brain pathways were not and um and these brain pathways were not and um and these brain pathways were not found in the species who couldn't found in the species who couldn't found in the species who couldn't imitate. So there was a parallel here imitate. So there was a parallel here imitate. So there was a parallel here and then uh jumping many years later you and then uh jumping many years later you and then uh jumping many years later you know I started to dig down into these uh know I started to dig down into these uh know I started to dig down into these uh brain circuits to discover that these brain circuits to discover that these brain circuits to discover that these brain circuits have parallel functions brain circuits have parallel functions brain circuits have parallel functions with the brain circuits for humans even with the brain circuits for humans even with the brain circuits for humans even though they're by a different name like though they're by a different name like though they're by a different name like brocas and linja motor cortex. And most brocas and linja motor cortex. And most brocas and linja motor cortex. And most recently we discovered not only the recently we discovered not only the recently we discovered not only the actual circuitry and the connectivity actual circuitry and the connectivity actual circuitry and the connectivity are similar but the underlying genes are similar but the underlying genes are similar but the underlying genes that are expressed in these brain that are expressed in these brain that are expressed in these brain regions in a specialized way different regions in a specialized way different regions in a specialized way different from the rest of the brain are also from the rest of the brain are also from the rest of the brain are also similar between humans and song birds similar between humans and song birds similar between humans and song birds and parrots. So all the way down to the and parrots. So all the way down to the and parrots. So all the way down to the genes and now we're finding the specific genes and now we're finding the specific genes and now we're finding the specific mutations are also similar. Not always mutations are also similar. Not always mutations are also similar. Not always identical but similar uh which indicates identical but similar uh which indicates identical but similar uh which indicates remarkable convergence for a so-called remarkable convergence for a so-called remarkable convergence for a so-called complex behavior in species separated by complex behavior in species separated by complex behavior in species separated by 300 million years from a common 300 million years from a common 300 million years from a common ancestor. And not only that, we are ancestor. And not only that, we are ancestor. And not only that, we are discovering that mutations in these discovering that mutations in these discovering that mutations in these genes that cause speech deficits in genes that cause speech deficits in genes that cause speech deficits in humans like in fox P2, uh if you put humans like in fox P2, uh if you put humans like in fox P2, uh if you put those same mutations or similar type of those same mutations or similar type of those same mutations or similar type of deficits in these vocal learning birds, deficits in these vocal learning birds, deficits in these vocal learning birds, you get similar deficits. So convergence you get similar deficits. So convergence you get similar deficits. So convergence of the behavior is associated with of the behavior is associated with of the behavior is associated with similar genetic disorders of the similar genetic disorders of the similar genetic disorders of the behavior. behavior. behavior. >> Do hummingbirds sing or do they hum? >> Do hummingbirds sing or do they hum? >> Do hummingbirds sing or do they hum? Hummingbirds hum with their wings and Hummingbirds hum with their wings and Hummingbirds hum with their wings and sing with their searings sing with their searings sing with their searings >> in a coordinated way. >> in a coordinated way. >> in a coordinated way. >> In a coordinated way. There's some >> In a coordinated way. There's some >> In a coordinated way. There's some species of hummingbirds um that actually species of hummingbirds um that actually species of hummingbirds um that actually will um Doug Ashler showed this that will um Doug Ashler showed this that will um Doug Ashler showed this that will flap uh their wings and create a will flap uh their wings and create a will flap uh their wings and create a slapping sound with their wings that's slapping sound with their wings that's slapping sound with their wings that's in unison with their song and and you in unison with their song and and you in unison with their song and and you would not know it, but it sounds like a would not know it, but it sounds like a would not know it, but it sounds like a particular syllable in their songs. uh particular syllable in their songs. uh particular syllable in their songs. uh even though it's their wings and their even though it's their wings and their even though it's their wings and their voice at the same time. voice at the same time. voice at the same time. >> Hummingbirds are clapping to their song. >> Hummingbirds are clapping to their song. >> Hummingbirds are clapping to their song. >> Clapping with their they're snapping >> Clapping with their they're snapping >> Clapping with their they're snapping their wings together uh in unison with a their wings together uh in unison with a their wings together uh in unison with a song to to make it like if I'm going da song to to make it like if I'm going da song to to make it like if I'm going da da da da da da, you know, and I banged da da da da da, you know, and I banged da da da da da, you know, and I banged on the table except they make it almost on the table except they make it almost on the table except they make it almost sound like their voice with their wings. sound like their voice with their wings. sound like their voice with their wings. What's amazing about hummingbirds and I What's amazing about hummingbirds and I What's amazing about hummingbirds and I we're going to say vocal learning we're going to say vocal learning we're going to say vocal learning species in general is that for whatever species in general is that for whatever species in general is that for whatever reason they seem to evolve multiple reason they seem to evolve multiple reason they seem to evolve multiple complex traits. You know this idea that complex traits. You know this idea that complex traits. You know this idea that evolving language, spoken language in evolving language, spoken language in evolving language, spoken language in particular comes along with a set of particular comes along with a set of particular comes along with a set of specializations. When I was coming up in specializations. When I was coming up in specializations. When I was coming up in neuroscience, I learned that I think it neuroscience, I learned that I think it neuroscience, I learned that I think it was the work of Peter Marlor that um was the work of Peter Marlor that um was the work of Peter Marlor that um young birds learn song birds learn their young birds learn song birds learn their young birds learn song birds learn their tutor song and learn it quite quite tutor song and learn it quite quite tutor song and learn it quite quite well. But that they could learn the song well. But that they could learn the song well. But that they could learn the song of another tutor. In other words, they of another tutor. In other words, they of another tutor. In other words, they could learn a different, and for the could learn a different, and for the could learn a different, and for the listeners, I'm doing air quotes here, a listeners, I'm doing air quotes here, a listeners, I'm doing air quotes here, a different language, a different bird different language, a different bird different language, a different bird song, different than their own species song, different than their own species song, different than their own species song, but never as well as they could song, but never as well as they could song, but never as well as they could learn their own natural genetically learn their own natural genetically learn their own natural genetically linked song. linked song. linked song. >> Yes, >> Yes, >> Yes, >> genetically linked meaning that it would >> genetically linked meaning that it would >> genetically linked meaning that it would be like me being raised in a different be like me being raised in a different be like me being raised in a different culture and um that I would learn that culture and um that I would learn that culture and um that I would learn that the other language, but not as well as I the other language, but not as well as I the other language, but not as well as I would have learned English. This this is would have learned English. This this is would have learned English. This this is the idea. Is that true? the idea. Is that true? the idea. Is that true? >> That is true. Yes. And that's and that's >> That is true. Yes. And that's and that's >> That is true. Yes. And that's and that's what I learned growing up as well and what I learned growing up as well and what I learned growing up as well and and and talked to Peter Mer himself and and talked to Peter Mer himself and and talked to Peter Mer himself about before he passed. Um he had this about before he passed. Um he had this about before he passed. Um he had this he used to call it the innate he used to call it the innate he used to call it the innate predisposition to learn. All right. So predisposition to learn. All right. So predisposition to learn. All right. So um which would be kind of the equivalent um which would be kind of the equivalent um which would be kind of the equivalent in the linguistic community of universal in the linguistic community of universal in the linguistic community of universal grammar. There is something genetically grammar. There is something genetically grammar. There is something genetically influencing our vocal communication on influencing our vocal communication on influencing our vocal communication on top of what we learn culturally. And so top of what we learn culturally. And so top of what we learn culturally. And so there's this ba balance between the there's this ba balance between the there's this ba balance between the genetic control of speech or a song in genetic control of speech or a song in genetic control of speech or a song in these birds and the learned uh cultural these birds and the learned uh cultural these birds and the learned uh cultural control. And so so yes, if you were to control. And so so yes, if you were to control. And so so yes, if you were to take um you know um I mean in this case take um you know um I mean in this case take um you know um I mean in this case we we actually tried this at we we actually tried this at we we actually tried this at Rockerfeller later on. Take a zebra Rockerfeller later on. Take a zebra Rockerfeller later on. Take a zebra fininch and raise it with a canary. It fininch and raise it with a canary. It fininch and raise it with a canary. It would sing a song that was sort of like would sing a song that was sort of like would sing a song that was sort of like a hybrid in between. We call it a a hybrid in between. We call it a a hybrid in between. We call it a caninch, right? caninch, right? caninch, right? uh and vice versa for the canary because uh and vice versa for the canary because uh and vice versa for the canary because there's something different about their there's something different about their there's something different about their vocal musculature or the gen or the vocal musculature or the gen or the vocal musculature or the gen or the circuitry in the brain. And with a zebra circuitry in the brain. And with a zebra circuitry in the brain. And with a zebra finch, even with a closely related finch, even with a closely related finch, even with a closely related species, if you would take a zebra finch species, if you would take a zebra finch species, if you would take a zebra finch uh young animal and in one cage next to uh young animal and in one cage next to uh young animal and in one cage next to it place its own species, adult male, it place its own species, adult male, it place its own species, adult male, right? And in the other cage place a right? And in the other cage place a right? And in the other cage place a Bengal finch next to it, it would Bengal finch next to it, it would Bengal finch next to it, it would preferably learn the song from its own preferably learn the song from its own preferably learn the song from its own species neighbor. But if you remove its species neighbor. But if you remove its species neighbor. But if you remove its neighbor, it would learn that bangal neighbor, it would learn that bangal neighbor, it would learn that bangal finch very well. finch very well. finch very well. >> Fantastic. >> Fantastic. >> Fantastic. >> So there's it it has something to do >> So there's it it has something to do >> So there's it it has something to do with also the social bonding with your with also the social bonding with your with also the social bonding with your own species. That raises a question that own species. That raises a question that own species. That raises a question that I based on something I also heard but I I based on something I also heard but I I based on something I also heard but I don't have any uh scientific don't have any uh scientific don't have any uh scientific peer-reviewed publication to point to peer-reviewed publication to point to peer-reviewed publication to point to which is this this idea of pigeon not which is this this idea of pigeon not which is this this idea of pigeon not the bird but this idea of when multiple the bird but this idea of when multiple the bird but this idea of when multiple cultures and languages converge in a cultures and languages converge in a cultures and languages converge in a given geographic area that the children given geographic area that the children given geographic area that the children of all the different native languages of all the different native languages of all the different native languages will come up with their own language. I will come up with their own language. I will come up with their own language. I think this was in island culture maybe think this was in island culture maybe think this was in island culture maybe in Hawaii called pigeon which is sort of in Hawaii called pigeon which is sort of in Hawaii called pigeon which is sort of a hybrid of the various languages that a hybrid of the various languages that a hybrid of the various languages that their parents speak at home their parents speak at home their parents speak at home >> and that they themselves speak and that >> and that they themselves speak and that >> and that they themselves speak and that somehow pigeon again not the bird but a somehow pigeon again not the bird but a somehow pigeon again not the bird but a language called pigeon for reasons I language called pigeon for reasons I language called pigeon for reasons I don't know don't know don't know harbors certain basic elements of all harbors certain basic elements of all harbors certain basic elements of all language language language >> is that true is that not true >> is that true is that not true >> is that true is that not true >> what is going on here is cultural >> what is going on here is cultural >> what is going on here is cultural evolution remarkably tracks genetic evolution remarkably tracks genetic evolution remarkably tracks genetic evolution. So if you bring people from evolution. So if you bring people from evolution. So if you bring people from two separate populations together that two separate populations together that two separate populations together that have been in their separate populations have been in their separate populations have been in their separate populations evolutionarily at least for hundreds of evolutionarily at least for hundreds of evolutionarily at least for hundreds of generations. So someone speaking generations. So someone speaking generations. So someone speaking Chinese, someone speaking English. Uh Chinese, someone speaking English. Uh Chinese, someone speaking English. Uh and that child uh then's learning from and that child uh then's learning from and that child uh then's learning from both of them. Yes. That child's going to both of them. Yes. That child's going to both of them. Yes. That child's going to be able to pick up and merge uh uh uh be able to pick up and merge uh uh uh be able to pick up and merge uh uh uh phonms and words together in a way that phonms and words together in a way that phonms and words together in a way that an adult wouldn't because why? they're an adult wouldn't because why? they're an adult wouldn't because why? they're experiencing both languages at the same experiencing both languages at the same experiencing both languages at the same time during their critical period uh time during their critical period uh time during their critical period uh years in a way that um adults would not years in a way that um adults would not years in a way that um adults would not be able to experience. And so you get a be able to experience. And so you get a be able to experience. And so you get a hybrid and the lowest common denominator hybrid and the lowest common denominator hybrid and the lowest common denominator is going to be what they share. And so is going to be what they share. And so is going to be what they share. And so the phonms that they've retained in each the phonms that they've retained in each the phonms that they've retained in each of their uh languages is what's going to of their uh languages is what's going to of their uh languages is what's going to be I imagine used the most. So we've got be I imagine used the most. So we've got be I imagine used the most. So we've got brain circuits in songirds and in humans brain circuits in songirds and in humans brain circuits in songirds and in humans that in many ways are similar perhaps that in many ways are similar perhaps that in many ways are similar perhaps not in their exact wiring but in their not in their exact wiring but in their not in their exact wiring but in their basic contour of wiring and genes that basic contour of wiring and genes that basic contour of wiring and genes that are expressed in both sets of neural are expressed in both sets of neural are expressed in both sets of neural circuits in very distinct species that circuits in very distinct species that circuits in very distinct species that are responsible for these phenomenon are responsible for these phenomenon are responsible for these phenomenon we're calling speech and language. I we're calling speech and language. I we're calling speech and language. I mean what are what are these genes mean what are what are these genes mean what are what are these genes doing? Uh, one of the things that differ doing? Uh, one of the things that differ doing? Uh, one of the things that differ in the speech pathways of us and these in the speech pathways of us and these in the speech pathways of us and these song pathways of birds is some of the song pathways of birds is some of the song pathways of birds is some of the connections are fundamentally different connections are fundamentally different connections are fundamentally different than the surrounding circuits. Like a um than the surrounding circuits. Like a um than the surrounding circuits. Like a um a direct cortical connection uh from the a direct cortical connection uh from the a direct cortical connection uh from the areas that control vocalizations in the areas that control vocalizations in the areas that control vocalizations in the cortex to the motor neurons that control cortex to the motor neurons that control cortex to the motor neurons that control the larynx in uh humans or the serrings the larynx in uh humans or the serrings the larynx in uh humans or the serrings in birds. And so we actually made a in birds. And so we actually made a in birds. And so we actually made a prediction uh that since some of these prediction uh that since some of these prediction uh that since some of these connections differ, we're going to find connections differ, we're going to find connections differ, we're going to find genes that that control neuro genes that that control neuro genes that that control neuro connectivity uh and that specialize in connectivity uh and that specialize in connectivity uh and that specialize in that function that differ. And that's that function that differ. And that's that function that differ. And that's exactly what we found. Uh um genes that exactly what we found. Uh um genes that exactly what we found. Uh um genes that control what we call axon guidance and control what we call axon guidance and control what we call axon guidance and form in connections. And what was form in connections. And what was form in connections. And what was interesting, it was sort of in the interesting, it was sort of in the interesting, it was sort of in the opposite direction that we expected. opposite direction that we expected. opposite direction that we expected. That is some of these genes, actually a That is some of these genes, actually a That is some of these genes, actually a number of them that control neuro number of them that control neuro number of them that control neuro connectivity were turned off. in the connectivity were turned off. in the connectivity were turned off. in the speech circuit. All right? Uh and it speech circuit. All right? Uh and it speech circuit. All right? Uh and it didn't make sense to us at first until didn't make sense to us at first until didn't make sense to us at first until we started to realize the function of we started to realize the function of we started to realize the function of these genes are to repel connections these genes are to repel connections these genes are to repel connections from forming. So repulsive molecules and from forming. So repulsive molecules and from forming. So repulsive molecules and so when you turn them off, they allow so when you turn them off, they allow so when you turn them off, they allow certain connections to form that certain connections to form that certain connections to form that normally would have not formed. So it's normally would have not formed. So it's normally would have not formed. So it's a so by turning it off, you got a gain a so by turning it off, you got a gain a so by turning it off, you got a gain of function for speech, right? Um uh of function for speech, right? Um uh of function for speech, right? Um uh other genes that surprised us were genes other genes that surprised us were genes other genes that surprised us were genes involved in calcium buffering neurop involved in calcium buffering neurop involved in calcium buffering neurop protection like a parvamine or heat protection like a parvamine or heat protection like a parvamine or heat shock proteins. So when your brain gets shock proteins. So when your brain gets shock proteins. So when your brain gets hot these proteins turn on and we hot these proteins turn on and we hot these proteins turn on and we couldn't figure out for a long time why couldn't figure out for a long time why couldn't figure out for a long time why is that the case and then the idea is that the case and then the idea is that the case and then the idea popped to me one day and said ah when I popped to me one day and said ah when I popped to me one day and said ah when I heard the larynx is the fastest firing heard the larynx is the fastest firing heard the larynx is the fastest firing muscles in the body. All right. In order muscles in the body. All right. In order muscles in the body. All right. In order to vibrate sound and and modulate sound to vibrate sound and and modulate sound to vibrate sound and and modulate sound in the way we do, you have to control, in the way we do, you have to control, in the way we do, you have to control, you have to move those muscles, you you have to move those muscles, you you have to move those muscles, you know, three to four to five times faster know, three to four to five times faster know, three to four to five times faster than just regular walking or running. than just regular walking or running. than just regular walking or running. And so, um, when you stick electrodes in And so, um, when you stick electrodes in And so, um, when you stick electrodes in in the brain areas that control learn in the brain areas that control learn in the brain areas that control learn vocalizations in these birds and I think vocalizations in these birds and I think vocalizations in these birds and I think in humans as well, uh, those neurons are in humans as well, uh, those neurons are in humans as well, uh, those neurons are firing at a higher rate to control these firing at a higher rate to control these firing at a higher rate to control these muscles. And so what is that going to muscles. And so what is that going to muscles. And so what is that going to do? You're going to have lots of do? You're going to have lots of do? You're going to have lots of toxicity in those neurons unless you toxicity in those neurons unless you toxicity in those neurons unless you upregulate molecules that take out uh upregulate molecules that take out uh upregulate molecules that take out uh the extra load that is needed to control the extra load that is needed to control the extra load that is needed to control the larynx. And then finally a third set the larynx. And then finally a third set the larynx. And then finally a third set of genes that are specialized in these of genes that are specialized in these of genes that are specialized in these speed circuit are involved in speed circuit are involved in speed circuit are involved in neuroplasticity. neuroplasticity. neuroplasticity. Uh neuroplasticity meaning allowing the Uh neuroplasticity meaning allowing the Uh neuroplasticity meaning allowing the brain circuits to be more flexible uh so brain circuits to be more flexible uh so brain circuits to be more flexible uh so you can learn better. And why is that? I you can learn better. And why is that? I you can learn better. And why is that? I think learning how to produce speech is think learning how to produce speech is think learning how to produce speech is a more complex learning ability than say a more complex learning ability than say a more complex learning ability than say learning how to walk or or learning how learning how to walk or or learning how learning how to walk or or learning how to do tricks and jumps and so forth that to do tricks and jumps and so forth that to do tricks and jumps and so forth that dogs do dogs do dogs do >> in terms of plasticity of speech and the >> in terms of plasticity of speech and the >> in terms of plasticity of speech and the ability to learn multiple languages but ability to learn multiple languages but ability to learn multiple languages but even just one language. What's going on even just one language. What's going on even just one language. What's going on in the so-called critical period? And in the so-called critical period? And in the so-called critical period? And then the second question is if one can then the second question is if one can then the second question is if one can already speak more than one language as already speak more than one language as already speak more than one language as a consequence of childhood learning is a consequence of childhood learning is a consequence of childhood learning is it easier to acquire new languages later it easier to acquire new languages later it easier to acquire new languages later on. on. on. >> Actually the entire brain uh is >> Actually the entire brain uh is >> Actually the entire brain uh is undergoing a critical period development undergoing a critical period development undergoing a critical period development not just the speech pathways and uh so not just the speech pathways and uh so not just the speech pathways and uh so it's easier to learn how to play a it's easier to learn how to play a it's easier to learn how to play a piano. It's easier to learn how to ride piano. It's easier to learn how to ride piano. It's easier to learn how to ride a bike for the first time and so forth a bike for the first time and so forth a bike for the first time and so forth as a young child than it is later in as a young child than it is later in as a young child than it is later in life. The brain can only hold so much life. The brain can only hold so much life. The brain can only hold so much information. And if you are undergoing information. And if you are undergoing information. And if you are undergoing rapid learning to learn to acquire new rapid learning to learn to acquire new rapid learning to learn to acquire new knowledge, you also have to put memory knowledge, you also have to put memory knowledge, you also have to put memory or information in the trash like in a or information in the trash like in a or information in the trash like in a computer. You you only have so many computer. You you only have so many computer. You you only have so many gigabases of memory. Plus also for gigabases of memory. Plus also for gigabases of memory. Plus also for survival, you don't want to keep survival, you don't want to keep survival, you don't want to keep forgetting things. And so so the brain forgetting things. And so so the brain forgetting things. And so so the brain is designed I believe to undergo this is designed I believe to undergo this is designed I believe to undergo this critical period and solidify the critical period and solidify the critical period and solidify the circuits with what you learned as a circuits with what you learned as a circuits with what you learned as a child and you use that for the rest of child and you use that for the rest of child and you use that for the rest of your life. And now the question you your life. And now the question you your life. And now the question you asked about if you learn more languages asked about if you learn more languages asked about if you learn more languages as a child, can you is it easier to as a child, can you is it easier to as a child, can you is it easier to learn as an adult? And that's a common learn as an adult? And that's a common learn as an adult? And that's a common uh finding out there in the literature. uh finding out there in the literature. uh finding out there in the literature. There are some that argue against it, There are some that argue against it, There are some that argue against it, but for those that support it, the idea but for those that support it, the idea but for those that support it, the idea there is um you you are born with a set there is um you you are born with a set there is um you you are born with a set of innate sounds you can produce of of innate sounds you can produce of of innate sounds you can produce of phonms and you narrow that down because phonms and you narrow that down because phonms and you narrow that down because not all languages use all of them. And not all languages use all of them. And not all languages use all of them. And so you narrow down the ones you use to so you narrow down the ones you use to so you narrow down the ones you use to string the phonms together in words that string the phonms together in words that string the phonms together in words that you learn and you maintain those phonms you learn and you maintain those phonms you learn and you maintain those phonms as an adult. And here comes along as an adult. And here comes along as an adult. And here comes along another language that's using those another language that's using those another language that's using those phonms or in in different combinations phonms or in in different combinations phonms or in in different combinations you're not used to. uh and therefore you're not used to. uh and therefore you're not used to. uh and therefore it's like starting from first principles it's like starting from first principles it's like starting from first principles but if you already have them in multiple but if you already have them in multiple but if you already have them in multiple languages that you're using then it languages that you're using then it languages that you're using then it makes it easier to use them in another makes it easier to use them in another makes it easier to use them in another third or fourth language. So it's not third or fourth language. So it's not third or fourth language. So it's not like your brain has under has maintained like your brain has under has maintained like your brain has under has maintained greater plasticity is your your brain greater plasticity is your your brain greater plasticity is your your brain has maintained greater ability to has maintained greater ability to has maintained greater ability to produce different sounds that then produce different sounds that then produce different sounds that then allows you to learn another language allows you to learn another language allows you to learn another language faster. What about modes of speech and faster. What about modes of speech and faster. What about modes of speech and language that seem to have a depth of language that seem to have a depth of language that seem to have a depth of emotionality and meaning but for which emotionality and meaning but for which emotionality and meaning but for which it departs from structured language? I it departs from structured language? I it departs from structured language? I think of musicians like there are some think of musicians like there are some think of musicians like there are some Bob Dylan songs that to me uh I Bob Dylan songs that to me uh I Bob Dylan songs that to me uh I understand the individual words. I like understand the individual words. I like understand the individual words. I like to think there's an emotion associated to think there's an emotion associated to think there's an emotion associated with it. At least I experienced some with it. At least I experienced some with it. At least I experienced some sort of emotion and I have a guess about sort of emotion and I have a guess about sort of emotion and I have a guess about what he was experiencing. But if I were what he was experiencing. But if I were what he was experiencing. But if I were to just read it linearly without the to just read it linearly without the to just read it linearly without the music and without him singing it or music and without him singing it or music and without him singing it or somebody singing it like him, it somebody singing it like him, it somebody singing it like him, it wouldn't hold any meaning. So in other wouldn't hold any meaning. So in other wouldn't hold any meaning. So in other words, words that seem to have meaning words, words that seem to have meaning words, words that seem to have meaning but not associated with language but but not associated with language but but not associated with language but somehow tap into an emotionality. somehow tap into an emotionality. somehow tap into an emotionality. >> Absolutely. So, so we call this >> Absolutely. So, so we call this >> Absolutely. So, so we call this difference um semantic communication, difference um semantic communication, difference um semantic communication, communication with meaning and effective communication with meaning and effective communication with meaning and effective communication, communication that has communication, communication that has communication, communication that has more of an emotional feeling content to more of an emotional feeling content to more of an emotional feeling content to it. I believe you know based upon it. I believe you know based upon it. I believe you know based upon imaging work and work we see in birds imaging work and work we see in birds imaging work and work we see in birds when when birds are communicating when when birds are communicating when when birds are communicating semantic information in their sounds semantic information in their sounds semantic information in their sounds which is not too often but it happens which is not too often but it happens which is not too often but it happens versus uh effective communication sing versus uh effective communication sing versus uh effective communication sing because I'm trying to attract the mate because I'm trying to attract the mate because I'm trying to attract the mate my courtship song or defend my territory my courtship song or defend my territory my courtship song or defend my territory it's the same brain circuits it's the it's the same brain circuits it's the it's the same brain circuits it's the same speech like or song circuits are same speech like or song circuits are same speech like or song circuits are being used in different ways there being used in different ways there being used in different ways there there's several other points here I there's several other points here I there's several other points here I think it's important for for the those think it's important for for the those think it's important for for the those listening out there to here is that when listening out there to here is that when listening out there to here is that when I say also this effective and um I say also this effective and um I say also this effective and um semantic communication um being used by semantic communication um being used by semantic communication um being used by similar brain circuits it also matters similar brain circuits it also matters similar brain circuits it also matters the side of the brain uh in birds and in the side of the brain uh in birds and in the side of the brain uh in birds and in humans um there's there's left right humans um there's there's left right humans um there's there's left right dominance uh for learn communication dominance uh for learn communication dominance uh for learn communication learned sound communication uh so the learned sound communication uh so the learned sound communication uh so the left in us humans is more dominant for left in us humans is more dominant for left in us humans is more dominant for speech but the right has a more balance speech but the right has a more balance speech but the right has a more balance for singing or processing musical sounds for singing or processing musical sounds for singing or processing musical sounds as opposed to processing speech. Both as opposed to processing speech. Both as opposed to processing speech. Both get used for both reasons. And so when get used for both reasons. And so when get used for both reasons. And so when people say your right brain is your people say your right brain is your people say your right brain is your artistic brain and your left brain is artistic brain and your left brain is artistic brain and your left brain is your thinking brain, this is what your thinking brain, this is what your thinking brain, this is what they're referring to. Uh and uh so they're referring to. Uh and uh so they're referring to. Uh and uh so that's another distinction. The second that's another distinction. The second that's another distinction. The second uh thing that's useful to know is that uh thing that's useful to know is that uh thing that's useful to know is that all vocal learning species use their all vocal learning species use their all vocal learning species use their learn sounds for this emotional learn sounds for this emotional learn sounds for this emotional effective kind of communication, but effective kind of communication, but effective kind of communication, but only a few of them like humans and some only a few of them like humans and some only a few of them like humans and some parrots and dolphins use it for the parrots and dolphins use it for the parrots and dolphins use it for the semantic kind of communication we semantic kind of communication we semantic kind of communication we calling speech. And and that has led a calling speech. And and that has led a calling speech. And and that has led a number of people to hypothesize that the number of people to hypothesize that the number of people to hypothesize that the evolution of spoken language of speech evolution of spoken language of speech evolution of spoken language of speech evolved first for singing uh for this evolved first for singing uh for this evolved first for singing uh for this more like emotional kind of made more like emotional kind of made more like emotional kind of made attraction like the Jennifer Lopez the attraction like the Jennifer Lopez the attraction like the Jennifer Lopez the Ricky Martin kind of songs and so forth. Ricky Martin kind of songs and so forth. Ricky Martin kind of songs and so forth. Uh and then later on it became used for Uh and then later on it became used for Uh and then later on it became used for abstract communication like we're doing abstract communication like we're doing abstract communication like we're doing now. now. now. >> I'd love to chat a moment about facial >> I'd love to chat a moment about facial >> I'd love to chat a moment about facial expression many of which are expression many of which are expression many of which are subconscious. We are all familiar with subconscious. We are all familiar with subconscious. We are all familiar with the fact that when what somebody says the fact that when what somebody says the fact that when what somebody says doesn't match some specific feature of doesn't match some specific feature of doesn't match some specific feature of their facial expression that it can um their facial expression that it can um their facial expression that it can um call you know that mismatch can cue our call you know that mismatch can cue our call you know that mismatch can cue our attention. attention. attention. >> Yeah. >> Yeah. >> Yeah. >> So how does motor circuitry that >> So how does motor circuitry that >> So how does motor circuitry that controls facial expression map on to the controls facial expression map on to the controls facial expression map on to the mo the brain circuits that control mo the brain circuits that control mo the brain circuits that control language, speech and even bodily and language, speech and even bodily and language, speech and even bodily and hand movement? hand movement? hand movement? >> Yeah. You ask a great question because >> Yeah. You ask a great question because >> Yeah. You ask a great question because we both know some colleagues like we both know some colleagues like we both know some colleagues like Winrich Frywald at Rockefeller Winrich Frywald at Rockefeller Winrich Frywald at Rockefeller University who study facial expression University who study facial expression University who study facial expression and the neurobiology behind it. and the neurobiology behind it. and the neurobiology behind it. Non-human primates have a lot of Non-human primates have a lot of Non-human primates have a lot of diversity in their facial expression diversity in their facial expression diversity in their facial expression like we humans do. And what we know like we humans do. And what we know like we humans do. And what we know about the neurobiology about the neurobiology about the neurobiology of brain regions controlling those of brain regions controlling those of brain regions controlling those muscles of the face is that these muscles of the face is that these muscles of the face is that these non-human primates and some other non-human primates and some other non-human primates and some other species that don't learn how to imitate species that don't learn how to imitate species that don't learn how to imitate vocalizations, they have vocalizations, they have vocalizations, they have strong connections from the cortical strong connections from the cortical strong connections from the cortical regions to the motor neurons that regions to the motor neurons that regions to the motor neurons that control facial expressions. And even control facial expressions. And even control facial expressions. And even though it's more diverse in these though it's more diverse in these though it's more diverse in these non-human primates, there was already a non-human primates, there was already a non-human primates, there was already a pre-existing diversity of communication, pre-existing diversity of communication, pre-existing diversity of communication, whether it's intentional or unconscious, whether it's intentional or unconscious, whether it's intentional or unconscious, through facial expression in our through facial expression in our through facial expression in our ancestors. And on top of that, we humans ancestors. And on top of that, we humans ancestors. And on top of that, we humans now add the voice uh along with those now add the voice uh along with those now add the voice uh along with those facial expressions. So it's like an facial expressions. So it's like an facial expressions. So it's like an email, too. You're you're emailing and email, too. You're you're emailing and email, too. You're you're emailing and someone says something by email. someone someone says something by email. someone someone says something by email. someone can interpret that angrily or or gently can interpret that angrily or or gently can interpret that angrily or or gently uh and it it be becomes ambiguous. The uh and it it be becomes ambiguous. The uh and it it be becomes ambiguous. The facial expressions get rid of that facial expressions get rid of that facial expressions get rid of that ambiguity. ambiguity. ambiguity. >> I'm so glad you brought that out because >> I'm so glad you brought that out because >> I'm so glad you brought that out because my next question was and is about my next question was and is about my next question was and is about written language. What is the process of written language. What is the process of written language. What is the process of going from a thought to language to going from a thought to language to going from a thought to language to written word and what's going on there? written word and what's going on there? written word and what's going on there? What do we know about the neural What do we know about the neural What do we know about the neural circuitry? What I think is going on is circuitry? What I think is going on is circuitry? What I think is going on is to explain what you're asking is about to explain what you're asking is about to explain what you're asking is about that I'm going to take it from the that I'm going to take it from the that I'm going to take it from the perspective of reading something. You perspective of reading something. You perspective of reading something. You read something on a paper. The signal read something on a paper. The signal read something on a paper. The signal from the paper goes through your eyes. from the paper goes through your eyes. from the paper goes through your eyes. It goes to the back of your brain to It goes to the back of your brain to It goes to the back of your brain to your visual cortical regions eventually. your visual cortical regions eventually. your visual cortical regions eventually. That visual signal then goes to your That visual signal then goes to your That visual signal then goes to your speech pathway in the motor cortex in speech pathway in the motor cortex in speech pathway in the motor cortex in front here in Brocas area. And you front here in Brocas area. And you front here in Brocas area. And you silently speak what you read in your silently speak what you read in your silently speak what you read in your brain without moving your muscles. And brain without moving your muscles. And brain without moving your muscles. And sometimes actually if you put electrodes sometimes actually if you put electrodes sometimes actually if you put electrodes EMG electrodes on your lendial muscles EMG electrodes on your lendial muscles EMG electrodes on your lendial muscles even on birds you can do this you'll see even on birds you can do this you'll see even on birds you can do this you'll see activity there while reading or or or activity there while reading or or or activity there while reading or or or trying to speak silently even though no trying to speak silently even though no trying to speak silently even though no sound's coming out. And so your speech sound's coming out. And so your speech sound's coming out. And so your speech pathway is now speaking what you're pathway is now speaking what you're pathway is now speaking what you're reading. reading. reading. Now to finish it off that signal is sent Now to finish it off that signal is sent Now to finish it off that signal is sent to your auditory pathway so you can hear to your auditory pathway so you can hear to your auditory pathway so you can hear what you're speaking in your own head. what you're speaking in your own head. what you're speaking in your own head. That's incredible. That's incredible. That's incredible. >> And this is why it's complicated. Oh, >> And this is why it's complicated. Oh, >> And this is why it's complicated. Oh, and then you got to write, right? Okay, and then you got to write, right? Okay, and then you got to write, right? Okay, here comes the fourth one. Now, the hand here comes the fourth one. Now, the hand here comes the fourth one. Now, the hand areas next to your speech pathway is got areas next to your speech pathway is got areas next to your speech pathway is got to take that auditory signal or even the to take that auditory signal or even the to take that auditory signal or even the adjacent motor signals for speaking and adjacent motor signals for speaking and adjacent motor signals for speaking and translate it into a visual signal on translate it into a visual signal on translate it into a visual signal on paper. So, so you're using at least four paper. So, so you're using at least four paper. So, so you're using at least four brain circuits um which includes the brain circuits um which includes the brain circuits um which includes the speech production and the speech speech production and the speech speech production and the speech perception pathways to write. Stutter is perception pathways to write. Stutter is perception pathways to write. Stutter is a um particularly interesting case. What a um particularly interesting case. What a um particularly interesting case. What is the current neurobiological is the current neurobiological is the current neurobiological understanding of stutter and are what's understanding of stutter and are what's understanding of stutter and are what's being developed in terms of treatments being developed in terms of treatments being developed in terms of treatments for stutter? for stutter? for stutter? >> Yeah. So we actually uh accidentally >> Yeah. So we actually uh accidentally >> Yeah. So we actually uh accidentally came across stuttering in songirds and came across stuttering in songirds and came across stuttering in songirds and we've published several papers on this we've published several papers on this we've published several papers on this to try to figure out the neurobiological to try to figure out the neurobiological to try to figure out the neurobiological basis. The first study we had was a basis. The first study we had was a basis. The first study we had was a brain area called the basil ganglia or brain area called the basil ganglia or brain area called the basil ganglia or the what's the the strium part of the the what's the the strium part of the the what's the the strium part of the basil ganglia involved in coordinating basil ganglia involved in coordinating basil ganglia involved in coordinating movements learning how to make movements movements learning how to make movements movements learning how to make movements when it was damaged in these in this in when it was damaged in these in this in when it was damaged in these in this in the speech-like pathway in these birds. the speech-like pathway in these birds. the speech-like pathway in these birds. What we found is that they started to What we found is that they started to What we found is that they started to stutter as the brain region recovered stutter as the brain region recovered stutter as the brain region recovered and unlike humans they actually and unlike humans they actually and unlike humans they actually recovered after three or four months. recovered after three or four months. recovered after three or four months. And why is that the case? Because bird And why is that the case? Because bird And why is that the case? Because bird brains under goes new neurogenesis in a brains under goes new neurogenesis in a brains under goes new neurogenesis in a way that human or mammal brains don't. way that human or mammal brains don't. way that human or mammal brains don't. Uh and it was the new neurons that were Uh and it was the new neurons that were Uh and it was the new neurons that were coming in into the circuit uh but not coming in into the circuit uh but not coming in into the circuit uh but not quite you know with the right proper quite you know with the right proper quite you know with the right proper activity uh was resulting in this activity uh was resulting in this activity uh was resulting in this stuttering in these birds. uh and after stuttering in these birds. uh and after stuttering in these birds. uh and after it was repaired not exactly the old song it was repaired not exactly the old song it was repaired not exactly the old song came back as a after the repair but came back as a after the repair but came back as a after the repair but still it recovered a lot better and it's still it recovered a lot better and it's still it recovered a lot better and it's now known they call this neurogen now known they call this neurogen now known they call this neurogen neurogenics neurogenics neurogenics stuttering in humans uh with damage to stuttering in humans uh with damage to stuttering in humans uh with damage to the braz ganglia or some type of the braz ganglia or some type of the braz ganglia or some type of disruption to the basil ganglia at a disruption to the basil ganglia at a disruption to the basil ganglia at a young age also causes stuttering in young age also causes stuttering in young age also causes stuttering in humans and even those who are born with humans and even those who are born with humans and even those who are born with stuttering uh um it it's often the basil stuttering uh um it it's often the basil stuttering uh um it it's often the basil ganglia uh that's disrupted than some ganglia uh that's disrupted than some ganglia uh that's disrupted than some other brain circuit and we think the other brain circuit and we think the other brain circuit and we think the speech part of the basil ganglia. speech part of the basil ganglia. speech part of the basil ganglia. >> Can adults who maintain a stutter from >> Can adults who maintain a stutter from >> Can adults who maintain a stutter from childhood uh repair that stutter? childhood uh repair that stutter? childhood uh repair that stutter? >> There are ways to overcome the >> There are ways to overcome the >> There are ways to overcome the stuttering through um through uh you stuttering through um through uh you stuttering through um through uh you know behavioral therapy. Uh and I think know behavioral therapy. Uh and I think know behavioral therapy. Uh and I think all of the uh tools out there have all of the uh tools out there have all of the uh tools out there have something to do with sensory motor something to do with sensory motor something to do with sensory motor integration. Uh controlling what you integration. Uh controlling what you integration. Uh controlling what you hear with what you output in a a hear with what you output in a a hear with what you output in a a thoughtful controlled way helps reduce thoughtful controlled way helps reduce thoughtful controlled way helps reduce the stuttering. the stuttering. the stuttering. >> Texting is a very very interesting >> Texting is a very very interesting >> Texting is a very very interesting evolution of language. I wonder evolution of language. I wonder evolution of language. I wonder sometimes whether or not we are getting sometimes whether or not we are getting sometimes whether or not we are getting less proficient at speech because we are less proficient at speech because we are less proficient at speech because we are not required to write and think in not required to write and think in not required to write and think in complete sentences. complete sentences. complete sentences. >> Mhm. >> Mhm. >> Mhm. >> What do you think is happening to >> What do you think is happening to >> What do you think is happening to language? Are we getting better at language? Are we getting better at language? Are we getting better at speaking, worse at speaking? And what do speaking, worse at speaking? And what do speaking, worse at speaking? And what do you think the role of things like you think the role of things like you think the role of things like texting and tweeting and shorthand texting and tweeting and shorthand texting and tweeting and shorthand communication, hashtagging, communication, hashtagging, communication, hashtagging, what's that doing to the way that our what's that doing to the way that our what's that doing to the way that our brains work? Uh texting brains work? Uh texting brains work? Uh texting actually has allowed for more rapid actually has allowed for more rapid actually has allowed for more rapid communication amongst people. It's more communication amongst people. It's more communication amongst people. It's more like a use it or lose it kind of a um like a use it or lose it kind of a um like a use it or lose it kind of a um thing with the brain. The more you use a thing with the brain. The more you use a thing with the brain. The more you use a particular brain region or circuit, the particular brain region or circuit, the particular brain region or circuit, the more enhanced it's like a muscle. Uh the more enhanced it's like a muscle. Uh the more enhanced it's like a muscle. Uh the more you exercise it, the more healthier more you exercise it, the more healthier more you exercise it, the more healthier it is, the bigger it becomes and the it is, the bigger it becomes and the it is, the bigger it becomes and the more space it takes and the more you more space it takes and the more you more space it takes and the more you lose something else. So I think texting lose something else. So I think texting lose something else. So I think texting is not decreasing the speech prowess or is not decreasing the speech prowess or is not decreasing the speech prowess or the intellectual prowess of speech. It's the intellectual prowess of speech. It's the intellectual prowess of speech. It's converting it and using it a lot in a converting it and using it a lot in a converting it and using it a lot in a different way in a way that may not be different way in a way that may not be different way in a way that may not be as rich in in regular writing because uh as rich in in regular writing because uh as rich in in regular writing because uh you you can only communicate so much you you can only communicate so much you you can only communicate so much nuance in short term writing. But um nuance in short term writing. But um nuance in short term writing. But um whatever that whatever is being done, whatever that whatever is being done, whatever that whatever is being done, you got people texting hours and hours you got people texting hours and hours you got people texting hours and hours and hours on the phone. So whatever your and hours on the phone. So whatever your and hours on the phone. So whatever your thumb circuit is going to get pretty big thumb circuit is going to get pretty big thumb circuit is going to get pretty big actually actually actually for those listening who are interested for those listening who are interested for those listening who are interested in getting better at speaking and in getting better at speaking and in getting better at speaking and understanding languages. Are there any understanding languages. Are there any understanding languages. Are there any tools that you recommend? Should kids tools that you recommend? Should kids tools that you recommend? Should kids learn how to read hard books and simple learn how to read hard books and simple learn how to read hard books and simple books? Uh what do you recommend? Should books? Uh what do you recommend? Should books? Uh what do you recommend? Should adults learn how to do that? Everyone adults learn how to do that? Everyone adults learn how to do that? Everyone wants to know how to keep their brain wants to know how to keep their brain wants to know how to keep their brain working better, so to speak, but also I working better, so to speak, but also I working better, so to speak, but also I think people want to be able to speak think people want to be able to speak think people want to be able to speak well and people want to be able to well and people want to be able to well and people want to be able to understand well. understand well. understand well. >> Yeah. What I've discovered personally, >> Yeah. What I've discovered personally, >> Yeah. What I've discovered personally, right, is that so when I switched from right, is that so when I switched from right, is that so when I switched from uh pursuing a career in science from a uh pursuing a career in science from a uh pursuing a career in science from a career in dance, I thought one day I career in dance, I thought one day I career in dance, I thought one day I would stop dancing. Um but I haven't would stop dancing. Um but I haven't would stop dancing. Um but I haven't because it I find it fulfilling for me. because it I find it fulfilling for me. because it I find it fulfilling for me. And there have been periods of time like And there have been periods of time like And there have been periods of time like during the pandemic where I slowed down during the pandemic where I slowed down during the pandemic where I slowed down on dancing and so forth. Um and and when on dancing and so forth. Um and and when on dancing and so forth. Um and and when you do that you realize okay there there you do that you realize okay there there you do that you realize okay there there parts of your body where your muscle parts of your body where your muscle parts of your body where your muscle tone decreases a little bit and somewhat tone decreases a little bit and somewhat tone decreases a little bit and somewhat and or you could start to gain weight or and or you could start to gain weight or and or you could start to gain weight or I somehow don't gain weight that easily I somehow don't gain weight that easily I somehow don't gain weight that easily and I think it's related to my dance if and I think it's related to my dance if and I think it's related to my dance if that's that that's meaningful to your that's that that's meaningful to your that's that that's meaningful to your audience. But what I found is in science audience. But what I found is in science audience. But what I found is in science we like to think of a separation between we like to think of a separation between we like to think of a separation between movement and action and cognition. And movement and action and cognition. And movement and action and cognition. And there is a separation for you between there is a separation for you between there is a separation for you between perception and production. Cognition perception and production. Cognition perception and production. Cognition being perception, production being being perception, production being being perception, production being movement, right? But if the speech movement, right? But if the speech movement, right? But if the speech pathways is next to the movement pathways is next to the movement pathways is next to the movement pathways, what I discover is by dancing, pathways, what I discover is by dancing, pathways, what I discover is by dancing, it is helping me think. It is helping it is helping me think. It is helping it is helping me think. It is helping keeping my brain fresh. It's not just keeping my brain fresh. It's not just keeping my brain fresh. It's not just moving my muscles. I'm moving or using moving my muscles. I'm moving or using moving my muscles. I'm moving or using the the circuitry in my brain to do the the circuitry in my brain to do the the circuitry in my brain to do control a whole big body. You need a lot control a whole big body. You need a lot control a whole big body. You need a lot of brain tissue to do that. And so I of brain tissue to do that. And so I of brain tissue to do that. And so I argue if you want to stay cognitively argue if you want to stay cognitively argue if you want to stay cognitively intact into your old age, you better be intact into your old age, you better be intact into your old age, you better be moving and you better be doing it moving and you better be doing it moving and you better be doing it consistently, whether it's dancing, consistently, whether it's dancing, consistently, whether it's dancing, walking, running, and also practicing walking, running, and also practicing walking, running, and also practicing speech, oratory speech and so forth, or speech, oratory speech and so forth, or speech, oratory speech and so forth, or singing is controlling the brain singing is controlling the brain singing is controlling the brain circuits that are moving your facial circuits that are moving your facial circuits that are moving your facial musculature. And it's going to keep your musculature. And it's going to keep your musculature. And it's going to keep your cognitive circuits also in tune. And I'm cognitive circuits also in tune. And I'm cognitive circuits also in tune. And I'm I'm convinced of that from my own I'm convinced of that from my own I'm convinced of that from my own personal experience. personal experience. personal experience. >> This has been an incredible conversation >> This has been an incredible conversation >> This has been an incredible conversation and opportunity for me to learn. I know and opportunity for me to learn. I know and opportunity for me to learn. I know I speak for a tremendous number of I speak for a tremendous number of I speak for a tremendous number of people. And I I just really want to say people. And I I just really want to say people. And I I just really want to say thank you for joining us today. You are thank you for joining us today. You are thank you for joining us today. You are incredibly busy. It's clear from your incredibly busy. It's clear from your incredibly busy. It's clear from your description of your science and your description of your science and your description of your science and your knowledge base that you are involved in knowledge base that you are involved in knowledge base that you are involved in a huge number of things. Um very busy. a huge number of things. Um very busy. a huge number of things. Um very busy. So, thank you for taking the time to So, thank you for taking the time to So, thank you for taking the time to speak to all of us. Thank you for the speak to all of us. Thank you for the speak to all of us. Thank you for the work that you're doing. Thank you for work that you're doing. Thank you for work that you're doing. Thank you for inviting me here to get the word out to inviting me here to get the word out to inviting me here to get the word out to the community uh of what's going on in the community uh of what's going on in the community uh of what's going on in the science world. the science world. the science world. >> Well, we're honored and very grateful to >> Well, we're honored and very grateful to >> Well, we're honored and very grateful to you, Eric. Thank you. You're welcome.